-as of [23 DECEMBER 2024]–
.
.
*2023*
-promising results of ‘therapeutic candidates’ are reported-
mice-tested CMD diet with RSL3 against cancer (2 Mar),[500]
a phase 1 trialed tuberculosis vaccine (6 Mar),[501]
trialed pulsed field ablation (PFA) against atrial fibrillation (6 Mar),[502]
mice-tested FGF21 (also activated by β-klotho) for alcohol intoxication recovery (7 Mar),[503][504]
a mice-tested mRNA vaccine against potential antibiotic-resistant plague which may also be useful for other antibacterial vaccines (8 Mar),[505][506]
a study (28 Feb) indicates Naloxone access does not promote high-risk opioid use behaviors (9 Mar),[507]
rat-tested mitochondrial transplantation (MTx) for cardiac arrest recovery (16 Mar),[508][509]
an EEG BCI headgear (16 Mar),[510][511]
mice-tested menin target against aging (16 Mar),[512][513]
a mice-tested novel-type CRISPR gene editing system PESpRY against RP vision loss (17 Mar),[514]
a mice-tested wearable patch for accelerated cutaneous chronic wound healing (24 Mar),[515]
phase 3 trialed pembrolizumab addition against recurrent endometrial cancer (27 Mar),[516]
a phase 3 trialed percutaneous approach against chronic limb threatening ischemia without amputation (30 Mar),[517]
-a mice-tested self-charging battery ROS-emitting implant against ‘cancer’-
(31 march 2023)
.
*5 may 2023*
-the ‘world health organization’ announces that ‘COVID-19’ is no longer considered a ‘global health emergency’
.
*2022*
*climate change is ‘irreversible’*
.
*pig grunts’ are divided into a ‘good/bad’ binary communication system*
*7000 samples*
*european scientists*
.
*cellular re-juvenation*
*without ‘cancer’ or other health complications*
*works for mice*
.
*2021*
.
*4 january 2021*
Media reports that engineers worldwide discuss a negative leap second and other possible measures as Earth spun faster in 2020
Researchers describe how the damage to nerve cells caused by ‘motor neurone disease’ could be repaired by improving the energy levels in mitochondria
.
5 January
Using theoretical calculations, researchers suggest that humans would be unable to control a superintelligent AI
.
(the ‘proof’ please!)
.
6 January
The first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human health and life is published
(titled “shitstorm”)
.
6 January
Scientists report the successful use of gene editing in mice with progeria, a premature aging disease
Chinese researchers report that they have built the world’s largest integrated quantum communication network, combining over 700 optical fibers with two QKD-ground-to-satellite links for a total distance between nodes of the network of networks of up to ~4,600 km
The first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human health and life is published, providing assessments, suggestions for corrective action, engineering solutions and requests for further research.
It finds that about half of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste – or close to one billion tons per year – is either not collected or mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires.
Authors conclude that “massive risk mitigation can be delivered” while noting that broad priority areas each lack a “high-quality research base”, partly due to the absence of “substantial research funding”, which scientists often require
.
7 January
A potential mRNA vaccine for multiple sclerosis is presented by a collaboration including BioNTech, with a study in mice showing great promise for improving symptoms and stopping disease progression
The Distribution and Frequency of P681H and D614G Mutations Among All SARS-CoV-2 Sequences by Month Reported in the GISAID Database in Year 2020.png
COVID-19 pandemic:
Scientists report in a preprint that the mutation ‘P681H’, a characteristic feature of the significant novel SARS-CoV-2 variants detected in the U.K. and Nigeria, is showing a significant exponential increase in worldwide frequency, similar to the now globally prevalent ‘D614G’
Time-series representations of mean relative body size.webp
Scientists conclude that environmental factors played a major role in the evolution of the slowly-evolving, currently low-diverse Crocodilia (and their ancestor-relatives), with warmer climate being associated with high evolutionary rates and large body sizes
.
8 January
News outlets report that scientists, with the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter, detected an FM radio signal from the moon Ganymede which is reportedly caused by cyclotron maser instability and similar to both WiFi-signals and Jupiter’s radio emissions
A study about the radio emissions was published in September 2020[24] but did not describe them to be of FM nature or similar to WiFi signals
Artist’s conception of the quasar J0313–1806, seen as it was only 670 million years after the Big Bang. (Version with labels.).jpg
Scientists report the discovery of the most distant, and therefore oldest, quasar, J0313–1806.
It is located 13 bn light-years away, does not yet have an accepted non-identifier name and significantly challenges theoretical models of early SMBH growth, apparently existing just ∼670 million years after the Big Bang despite its large size
Archaeologists report that the African cultural phase, called Middle Stone Age, thought to have lasted from ~300–30 ka, lasted to ~11 ka in some places, highlighting significant spatial and temporal cultural variability
A study with mice suggests that childhood diet and exercise can substantially affect adult microbiome composition and diversity
WASP-62b is confirmed to be the first hot Jupiter exoplanet without clouds or haze in its observable atmosphere
.
*12 january 2021*
Scientists report the use CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing to produce a tenfold increase in super-bug targeting formicamycin antibiotics
COVID-19 pandemic:
The National Institute of Infectious Diseases of Japan reports the detection of significant variant of SARS-CoV-2 Lineage P.1 via testing of travelers from Brazil, which was later reported to originate from widespread circulation in Brazil
Larger populations promote category convergence across populations.webp
Researchers report that large populations consistently converge on highly similar category systems, relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures
.
13 January
A group of 17 high-ranking ecologists conclude that current challenges – themselves individually – that humanity faces and which may lead to a “ghastly” future are large and underestimated
.
13 January
A new record high temperature of the world’s oceans is reported, measured from the surface level down to a depth of 2,000 metres
In Lyon, France, the first transplant of both arms and shoulders is performed on an Icelandic patient.[42][43]
Astrophysicists report that energy extraction – with high efficiency – from rotating black holes with a high spin via reconnection of magnetic field lines of an externally supplied magnetic field that accelerates escaping plasma particles is possible.
Advanced civilizations may be capable of doing so
Scientists report that all glacial periods of ice ages over the last 1.5 M years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns, leading to more CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere.
Authors note that this process may be disrupted as the Southern Ocean may be too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes or effects
A group of 17 high-ranking ecologists publish a perspective piece that reviews a number of studies that, based on current trends, indicate that future environmental conditions will be far more dangerous than currently believed, concluding that current challenges – themselves in specific – that humanity faces are large and underestimated.
The small group cautions that such an “optimism bias” is prevalent and that fundamental changes are required, listing a few of such they consider adequate in the form of broad descriptions in their largely static document, published by a scientific journal
.
15 January
Researchers in China report the successful transmission of entangled photons between drones, used as nodes for the development of mobile quantum networks or flexible network extensions, marking the first work in which entangled particles were sent between two moving devices
.
Scientists from U.S. federal medical agencies report that gut infections increase its microbiota’s resistance to subsequent infections and that this is associated with taurine, whose exogenous supply can induce this microbiota alteration
COVID-19 pandemic:
Medical scientists in Norway report concerns about the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, suggesting that the vaccine may be “too risky for the very old and terminally ill”
.
17 January –
LauncherOne becomes the first successful all-liquid-fuelled air-launched rocket to reach orbit
.
20 January
Archaeologists report the discovery of what may be earliest evidence of human use of symbols – a ~120-ky-old bone engraved with six lines
.
Researchers report that myeloid cells are drivers of a maladaptive inflammation element of brain-ageing in mice and that this can be reversed or prevented via inhibition of their EP2 signalling
Scientists report that the MOTS-c peptide in the mitochondrial genome is an AMPK-related regulator of age-dependent physical decline in mice and that its exogenous supply initiated in late-life can substantially increase their physical performance and healthspans
.
22 January
A study described as the “first long-term assessment of global bee decline”, which analyzed GBIF-data of over a century, finds that the number of bee species declined steeply after the 1990s, shrinking by a quarter in 2006–2015 compared to before 1990
COVID-19 pandemic:
Preliminary analyses indicate that the SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern detected in the U.K. is associated with an increased severity of disease
.
25 January
Global ice loss is found to be accelerating at a record rate in a scientific review, matching the worst-case scenarios of the IPCC
Astronomers report the discovery of TOI-178, a rare system of six exoplanets locked in a complex chain of Laplace orbital resonances and variations in the densities that are hard to explain
Australian scientists develop a new cryogenic computer system called Gooseberry, which has potential for scaling up quantum computers from dozens to thousands of qubits
.
*26 january 2021*
*a study suggests that operating ‘air purifiers’ or ‘air ventilation systems’ in ‘confined spaces’ during their ‘occupancy’ by ‘multiple people’ leads to increased ‘airborne virus transmission’ due to ‘air circulation effects’*
.
27 January
Researchers report a way to manufacture transparent wood, whose qualities exceed those made with the main process used earlier, that requires substantially less amounts of chemicals and energy – solar-assisted chemical brushing
Scientists report that shark and ray populations have fallen by 71% since 1970 as a result of human actions, primarily overfishing
.
.
28 January
COVID-19 pandemic: Medical scientists report the first detection of a South African strain, named 501.V2 variant, which current COVID-19 vaccines may not well mitigate
Researchers report the development of a highly efficient single-photon source for quantum IT with a system of gated quantum dots in a tunable microcavity which captures photons released from these excited “artificial atoms”
.
COVID-19 pandemic
Scientists report that reductions in air pollution due to worldwide COVID-19 lockdowns were larger than previously estimated according to their models and conclude that, because of that, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the climate during 2020 was a slight warming of Earth’s climate instead of a slight cooling
.
February
2 February
COVID-19 pandemic:
Russia’s Sputnik V vaccine is shown to be 92% effective against COVID-19, according to late stage trial results published in The Lancet
.
COVID-19 pandemic:
Medical scientists in the United Kingdom report the detection of E484K (in 11 out of 214,000 samples), a mutation of the U.K. coronavirus variant that may compromise current vaccine effectiveness
Astronomers report that Tabby’s Star, observed to dim in very unusual ways, has been found to be a binary stellar system
.
5 February
COVID-19 pandemic:
A study suggests that climate change may have driven the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, by increasing the growth of forest habitats favoured by bats carrying the virus
.
A new theory aims to explain ʻOumuamua’s peculiarities naturally and estimates, if true, ~4% of astronomical bodies in the interstellar medium to be N2 ice fragments
A study identifies genes for face shape and, for the first time, finds that a version of a gene – which was possibly selected for due to adaption to cold climate via fat distribution – is associated with a facial feature, lip thickness, and introgressed from ancient humans – Denisovans – into modern humans, Native Americans
Researchers demonstrate a first prototype of quantum-logic gates for distributed quantum computers
8 February –
Scientists report an updated status of studies considering the possible detection of lifeforms on Venus (via of phosphine) and Mars (via methane)
.
9 February
The UAE’s Hope spacecraft becomes the first Arabian mission to successfully enter orbit around Mars
A study using a high spatial resolution model and an updated concentration-response function finds that 10.2 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7 M in 2018 – or [dubious – discuss] – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially subdivided mortality impacts
Updated probabilistic forecast of CO2 Emissions, based on data to 2015 and the method of Raftery et al.webp
A study concludes that the rates of emissions reductions need to increase by 80% beyond NDCs to meet the 2 °C upper target range of the Paris Agreement, that the probabilities of major emitters meeting their NDCs without such an increase is very low, estimating that with current trends the probability of staying below 2 °C of warming is 5% and if unadjusted NDCs were met by all signatory systems 26%
.
A study finds that air pollution by nitrogen dioxide could be a technosignature by which one could detect extraterrestrial civilizations via “atmospheric SETI”
.
*10 february 2021*
*the Chinese Tianwen-1 spacecraft successfully enters orbit around ‘mars’*
.
A large trial of semaglutide, a drug already used for type 2 diabetes, shows that it can also offer a 15% reduction in body weight, more than any other obesity drug on the market so far
A preprint suggests observational data for a planet-mass object “Planet 9” at the outer Solar system is not significant and could be selection bias
Scientists deduce in a review that Homo sapiens does not have a single origin in terms of ancestor birthplaces being limited to a small geographic region and that current knowledge about long, continuous and complex – e.g. often non-singular, parallel, nonsimultaneous and/or gradual – emergences of characteristica is consistent with a range of evolutionary histories
Researchers report the development of a wearable thermoelectric generator with characteristics that make it a candidate for devices continuously harvesting body-heat energy and solar energy with applications such as powering wearable electronics
.
18 February:
NASA’s Perseverance rover successfully lands on Mars.
.
11 February
COVID-19 pandemic:
A study finds that the arthritis drug tocilizumab can reduce deaths from COVID-19, enough to save the lives of one in 25 patients admitted to hospital, and can reduce the need for a mechanical ventilator
The core of globular cluster NGC 6397 is found to contain a dense concentration of compact remnants (white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes), based on new data from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Gaia astrometric mission
.
12 February
Researchers report that brain organoids created with stem cells into which they reintroduced the archaic gene variant NOVA1 present in Neanderthals and Denisovans via CRISPR-Cas9 shows that it has a major impact on neurodevelopment and that such genetic mutations during the evolution of the human brain underlie traits that separates modern humans from extinct Homo species
Scientists describe a CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing approach which could be used to treat wet age-related macular degeneration caused by VEGFA and herpes simplex type 1:
injection of engineered lentiviruses into the affected anatomical regions for transient editing without inducing off-target edits.
.
15 February
Researchers report, for the first time, the detection of lifeforms 872 m below the ice of Antarctica, at a depth of 1,233 m
.
15 February
Scientists report studies suggesting the impactor that led to the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago was a fragment from a disrupted comet, rather than an asteroid which has long been the leading candidate among scientists
Researchers report, for the first time, the detection of lifeforms 872 m below the ice of Antarctica, at a depth of 1,233 m and 260 km from the open water at the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf’s calving margin
.
16 February –
Global warming is found to cause increases of pollen season lengths and concentrations
.
17 February –
Scientists report the first sequencing of DNA from animal remains more than a million years old – in this case of a mammoth
.
18 February
Scientists report having established real-time communication with people during lucid dreams
(?!?)
.
.
18 February
NASA’s Mars 2020 mission (containing the Perseverance rover and Ingenuity helicopter drone) lands on Mars at Jezero Crater, after seven months of travel.[145]
Astronomers report that Cygnus X-1, one of the first known black holes in the Milky Way galaxy, is substantially more massive than first thought.
This finding challenges the way the evolution of massive stars is understood
Teams of cognitive scientists report having established real-time communication with people undergoing a lucid dream and show that they were able to comprehend questions and use working memory
.
19 February
Scientists report that the short global geomagnetic reversal – a geomagnetic excursion – of Earth’s magnetic field ~42,000 years ago – the Laschamp event – in combination with grand solar minima, caused major extinctions and environmental changes and may have contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals and appearances of cave art.
It altered the geographical extension of auroras and levels of harmful radiation worldwide.
They re-term the event which they find to constitute a major enviro-archaeological boundary “Adams Transitional Geomagnetic Event”
Thomas Metzinger, a German philosopher of cognitive science and applied ethics, calls for a “global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology” which, “until 2050”, precautionarily bans “all research that directly aims at or knowingly risks the emergence of artificial consciousness on post-biotic carrier systems” – which could be gradually refined.
The paper does not describe mechanisms of global enforcement of proposed regulations which do not encompass biotic or semi-biotic systems and aims to limit suffering risks
.
22 February –
Astronomers release, for the first time, a very high-resolution map of 25,000 active supermassive black holes, covering four percent of the Northern celestial hemisphere, based on ultra-low radio wavelengths, as detected by the LOFAR in Europe
.
25 February –
Researchers confirm that that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, which includes the Gulf Stream, is at its weakest since about 1,000 years ago, experiencing unprecedented weakening – likely due to global warming – which could result in more extreme weather events – including heatwaves and intense winters – and it moving towards a “tipping point”
.
26 February –
COVID-19 pandemic:
The Wall Street Journal reports that a purported patient zero of COVID-19 may have been infected by parents who visited a different food market than the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market that has been thought to be the primary source of the infection earlier
28 February –
Winchcombe meteorite:
Fragments of a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, the first known in Britain, fall at Winchcombe in the English Cotswolds
.
.
March
1 March –
Scientists use lipid nanoparticles to deliver CRISPR genome editing into the livers of mice, resulting in a 57% reduction of cholesterol levels.[160]
3 March –
COVID-19 pandemic:
Scientists report that a much more contagious COVID-19 variant, Lineage P.1, first detected in Japan, and more recently found in Brazil, as well as in several places in the United States, may be associated with COVID-19 disease reinfection after recovery from an earlier COVID-19 infection
4 March –
COVID-19 pandemic:
Scientists report a problematic COVID-19 variant, less susceptible to vaccines, a combination of British B.1.1.7 and South African E484K (Eeek) mutations, in the state of Oregon
5 March –
NASA names the landing site of the Perseverance rover in Jezero crater as “Octavia E. Butler Landing”
.
*8 march 2021*
*astronomers report the discovery of a quasar known as P172+18, the most distant source of radio emissions known to date, some ’13 billion light years away’*
.
.
*18 june 2021*
The existence of a “pulse” in earth’s geological activity, occurring approximately every 27.5 million years, is reported by ‘New York University’
The next pulse is due in about 20.5 million years
.
.
May/June –
The Tianwen-1 spacecraft will deploy a rover on Mars, after entering orbit in February.
July –
.
.
*8 SEPTEMBER 2021*
*’cysteamine’ – an ‘anti-oxidant drug’ already approved for ‘human use’ – is shown to reverse ‘atherosclerosis’ – the process responsible for ‘heart attacks’ + ‘strokes’ – in ‘mice’*
.
.
Predicted and scheduled events
Sloan Digital Sky Survey’s final data release of SDSS-IV including final data products and catalogs.[167]
31 October –
The James Webb Space Telescope, “NASA’s most powerful and complex space telescope,”[168] is scheduled to launch
.
November
Planned launch of NASA’s Artemis 1 mission to the Moon, the first integrated flight of the agency’s Orion MPCV and Space Launch System (SLS)
1 November – 12 November –
The 2021 UN Climate Change Conference is scheduled to take place in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom.
It was rescheduled from November 9, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic
.
.
Date unknown
Early-2021 –
The Large Hadron Collider will recommence operations in early 2021;[172][173][174][175] the collider was shut down in December 2018 “to enable major upgrade and renovation works.”
Early/mid-2021 –
SATCON2, a workshop to bring astronomers and satellite constellation operators together
Mid/late-2021 –
Science first light of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory is anticipated for 2021 with full science operations to begin a year later
The Indian Space Research Organisation plans to launch the Chandrayaan-3 Moon mission in late 2021 or early 2022
The race to lower launch costs in spaceflight continues with the planned maiden flights of
Ariane 6 by Arianespace,[181]
New Glenn by Blue Origin,[182]
Vulcan by United Launch Alliance[183]
and various smaller rockets
.
Lucy, a planned NASA space probe that will flyby five Jupiter trojans, asteroids which share Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun, orbiting either ahead of or behind the planet and one main belt asteroid,[184] is scheduled for launch
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes, intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth, is scheduled for launch
China plans to begin construction of a large modular space station
Plan S, an initiative for open-access science publishing launched in 2018,[186][187] requires that from 2021 papers from over 10 European countries that resulted from research funded by public grants must be published under an open licence in compliant journals or platforms, available to all
.
Astronomical events
26 May – a total lunar eclipse will occur
10 June – an annular solar eclipse will occur
19 November – a partial lunar eclipse will occur
4 December – a total solar eclipse will occur
.
.
Awards[edit]
[icon]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Deaths[edit]
[icon]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
See also[edit]
Category:Science events
Category:Science timelines
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
Category:Scientific and technical responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Immunity passport
List of technologies
List of emerging technologies
List of years in science
.
.
References
^ Knapton, Sarah (4 January 2021). “The Earth is spinning faster now than at any time in the past half century”. The Telegraph. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “The Earth has been spinning faster lately”. phys.org. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “Motor neurone disease: Edinburgh scientists reveal breakthrough”. BBC News. 19 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
^ “MND study provides exciting new focus for potential drug treatments”. University of Edinburgh. 6 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
^ Mehta, Arpan R.; Gregory, Jenna M.; Dando, Owen; Carter, Roderick N.; Burr, Karen; Nanda, Jyoti; Story, David; McDade, Karina; Smith, Colin; Morton, Nicholas M.; Mahad, Don J.; Hardingham, Giles E.; Chandran, Siddharthan; Selvaraj, Bhuvaneish T. (1 February 2021). “Mitochondrial bioenergetic deficits in C9orf72 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis motor neurons cause dysfunctional axonal homeostasis”. Acta Neuropathologica. 141 (2): 257–279. doi:10.1007/s00401-020-02252-5. ISSN 1432-0533. PMC 7847443. PMID 33398403. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Computer scientists: We wouldn’t be able to control super intelligent machines”. Science Daily. 11 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
^ Alfonseca, Manuel; Cebrian, Manuel; Anta, Antonio Fernandez; Coviello, Lorenzo; Abeliuk, Andrés; Rahwan, Iyad (5 January 2021). “Superintelligence Cannot be Contained: Lessons from Computability Theory”. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research. 70: 65–76. doi:10.1613/jair.1.12202. ISSN 1076-9757. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b “Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “‘Incredible’ gene-editing result in mice inspires plans to treat premature-aging syndrome in children”. Science. 6 January 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
^ “DNA-editing method shows promise to treat mouse model of progeria”. National Human Genome Research Institute. 6 January 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
^ Koblan, Luke W.; Erdos, Michael R.; Wilson, Christopher; Cabral, Wayne A.; Levy, Jonathan M.; Xiong, Zheng-Mei; Tavarez, Urraca L.; Davison, Lindsay M.; Gete, Yantenew G.; Mao, Xiaojing; Newby, Gregory A.; Doherty, Sean P.; Narisu, Narisu; Sheng, Quanhu; Krilow, Chad; Lin, Charles Y.; Gordon, Leslie B.; Cao, Kan; Collins, Francis S.; Brown, Jonathan D.; Liu, David R. (January 2021). “In vivo base editing rescues Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome in mice”. Nature. 589 (7843): 608–614. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03086-7. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7872200. PMID 33408413. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “The world’s first integrated quantum communication network”. phys.org. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Chen, Yu-Ao; Zhang, Qiang; Chen, Teng-Yun; Cai, Wen-Qi; Liao, Sheng-Kai; Zhang, Jun; Chen, Kai; Yin, Juan; Ren, Ji-Gang; Chen, Zhu; Han, Sheng-Long; Yu, Qing; Liang, Ken; Zhou, Fei; Yuan, Xiao; Zhao, Mei-Sheng; Wang, Tian-Yin; Jiang, Xiao; Zhang, Liang; Liu, Wei-Yue; Li, Yang; Shen, Qi; Cao, Yuan; Lu, Chao-Yang; Shu, Rong; Wang, Jian-Yu; Li, Li; Liu, Nai-Le; Xu, Feihu; Wang, Xiang-Bin; Peng, Cheng-Zhi; Pan, Jian-Wei (January 2021). “An integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network over 4,600 kilometres”. Nature. 589 (7841): 214–219. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03093-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33408416. S2CID 230812317. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Cook, E.; Velis, C. A. (6 January 2021). “Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life”. Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “BioNTech Publishes Data on Novel mRNA Vaccine Approach to Treat Autoimmune Diseases in Science”. BioNTech. 7 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
^ “Treating an autoimmune disease in mice with an mRNA vaccine”. EurekAlert!. 7 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
^ Koblan, Luke W.; Erdos, Michael R.; Wilson, Christopher; Cabral, Wayne A.; Levy, Jonathan M.; Xiong, Zheng-Mei; Tavarez, Urraca L.; Davison, Lindsay M.; Gete, Yantenew G.; Mao, Xiaojing; Newby, Gregory A.; Doherty, Sean P.; Narisu, Narisu; Sheng, Quanhu; Krilow, Chad; Lin, Charles Y.; Gordon, Leslie B.; Cao, Kan; Collins, Francis S.; Brown, Jonathan D.; Liu, David R. (January 2021). “In vivo base editing rescues Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome in mice”. Nature. 589 (7843): 608–614. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03086-7. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7872200. PMID 33408413. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Study shows P681H mutation is becoming globally prevalent among SARS-CoV-2 sequences”. News-Medical.net. 10 January 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Maison, David P.; Ching, Lauren L.; Shikuma, Cecilia M.; Nerurkar, Vivek R. (7 January 2021). “Genetic Characteristics and Phylogeny of 969-bp S Gene Sequence of SARS-CoV-2 from Hawaii Reveals the Worldwide Emerging P681H Mutation”. bioRxiv : The Preprint Server for Biology: 2021.01.06.425497. doi:10.1101/2021.01.06.425497. PMC 7805472. PMID 33442699. Retrieved 11 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Research explains why crocodiles have changed so little since the age of the dinosaurs”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Stockdale, Maximilian T.; Benton, Michael J. (7 January 2021). “Environmental drivers of body size evolution in crocodile-line archosaurs”. Communications Biology. 4 (1): 38. doi:10.1038/s42003-020-01561-5. ISSN 2399-3642. PMC 7790829. PMID 33414557. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Jump up to: a b “NASA reportedly detects signal coming from one of Jupiter’s moons”. Futurism. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “Discovery in space: FM radio signal coming from Jupiter’s moon Ganymede”. ABC4 Utah. 9 January 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Louis, C. K.; Louarn, P.; Allegrini, F.; Kurth, W. S.; Szalay, J. R. (2020). “Ganymede-Induced Decametric Radio Emission: In Situ Observations and Measurements by Juno”. Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (20): e2020GL090021. doi:10.1029/2020GL090021. ISSN 1944-8007. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
^ “Astronomers discover oldest, most distant quasar and supermassive black hole 13 billion light years away”. www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Wang, Feige; Yang, Jinyi; Fan, Xiaohui; Hennawi, Joseph F.; Barth, Aaron J.; Banados, Eduardo; Bian, Fuyan; Boutsia, Konstantina; Connor, Thomas; Davies, Frederick B.; Decarli, Roberto; Eilers, Anna-Christina; Farina, Emanuele Paolo; Green, Richard; Jiang, Linhua; Li, Jiang-Tao; Mazzucchelli, Chiara; Nanni, Riccardo; Schindler, Jan-Torge; Venemans, Bram; Walter, Fabian; Wu, Xue-Bing; Yue, Minghao (14 January 2021). “A Luminous Quasar at Redshift 7.642”. The Astrophysical Journal. 907 (1): L1. arXiv:2101.03179. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abd8c6. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 231572944. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “First human culture lasted 20,000 years longer than thought”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Niang, Khady; Candy, Ian; Blinkhorn, James; Mills, William; Cerasoni, Jacopo N.; Bateman, Mark D.; Crowther, Alison; Groucutt, Huw S. (11 January 2021). “Continuity of the Middle Stone Age into the Holocene”. Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 70. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7801626. PMID 33431997. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Study finds childhood diet has lifelong impact”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Poor diet in childhood may have lasting effects on gut microbiome”. New Atlas. 4 February 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ McNamara, Monica P.; Singleton, Jennifer M.; Cadney, Marcell D.; Ruegger, Paul M.; Borneman, James; Garland, Theodore (1 January 2021). “Early-life effects of juvenile Western diet and exercise on adult gut microbiome composition in mice”. Journal of Experimental Biology: jeb.239699. doi:10.1242/jeb.239699. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 33431595. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Astronomers discover first cloudless, Jupiter-like planet”. Science Daily. 22 January 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
^ Alam, Munazza K.; López-Morales, Mercedes; MacDonald, Ryan J.; Nikolov, Nikolay; Kirk, James; Goyal, Jayesh M.; Sing, David K.; Wakeford, Hannah R.; Rathcke, Alexander D.; Deming, Drake L.; Sanz-Forcada, Jorge; Lewis, Nikole K.; Barstow, Joanna K.; Mikal-Evans, Thomas; Buchhave, Lars A. (11 January 2021). “Evidence of a Clear Atmosphere for WASP-62b: The Only Known Transiting Gas Giant in the JWST Continuous Viewing Zone”. The Astrophysical Journal. 906 (2): L10. arXiv:2011.06424. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abd18e. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 226306572. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Gene-editing produces tenfold increase in superbug slaying antibiotics”. EurekAlert!. 12 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
^ Devine, Rebecca; McDonald, Hannah P.; Qin, Zhiwei; Arnold, Corinne J.; Noble, Katie; Chandra, Govind; Wilkinson, Barrie; Hutchings, Matthew I. (12 January 2021). “Re-wiring the regulation of the formicamycin biosynthetic gene cluster to enable the development of promising antibacterial compounds”. Cell Chemical Biology. 0. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.12.011. ISSN 2451-9456. PMID 33440167. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Brief report: New Variant Strain of SARS-CoV-2 Identified in Travelers from Brazil” (PDF) (Press release). Japan: NIID (National Institute of Infectious Diseases). 12 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
^ “Why independent cultures think alike when it comes to categories: It’s not in the brain”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Guilbeault, Douglas; Baronchelli, Andrea; Centola, Damon (12 January 2021). “Experimental evidence for scale-induced category convergence across populations”. Nature Communications. 12 (1): 327. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20037-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7804416. PMID 33436581. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Jump up to: a b “Top scientists warn of ‘ghastly future of mass extinction’ and climate disruption”. The Guardian. 13 January 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Upper ocean temperatures hit record high in 2020”. EurekAlert!. 13 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
^ Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John; Boyer, Tim; Locarnini, Ricardo; Zhang, Bin; Yu, Fujiang; Wan, Liying; Chen, Xingrong; Song, Xiangzhou; Liu, Yulong; Mann, Michael E.; Reseghetti, Franco; Simoncelli, Simona; Gouretski, Viktor; Chen, Gengxin; Mishonov, Alexey; Reagan, Jim; Zhu, Jiang (13 January 2021). “Upper Ocean Temperatures Hit Record High in 2020”. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. doi:10.1007/s00376-021-0447-x. ISSN 1861-9533. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Icelandic man receives world’s first double-arm-and-shoulder transplant”. The Guardian. AFP. 23 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Double greffe des bras et des épaules à Lyon, une première mondiale”. Sciences et Avenir (in French). Retrieved 25 January 2021.
^ “Could we harness energy from black holes?”. phys.org. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Comisso, Luca; Asenjo, Felipe A. (13 January 2021). “Magnetic reconnection as a mechanism for energy extraction from rotating black holes”. Physical Review D. 103 (2): 023014. arXiv:2012.00879. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.103.023014. S2CID 227247741. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “Melting icebergs key to sequence of an ice age, scientists find”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Terrawatch: the adventurous icebergs that trigger ice ages”. The Guardian. 3 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Starr, Aidan; Hall, Ian R.; Barker, Stephen; Rackow, Thomas; Zhang, Xu; Hemming, Sidney R.; van der Lubbe, H. J. L.; Knorr, Gregor; Berke, Melissa A.; Bigg, Grant R.; Cartagena-Sierra, Alejandra; Jiménez-Espejo, Francisco J.; Gong, Xun; Gruetzner, Jens; Lathika, Nambiyathodi; LeVay, Leah J.; Robinson, Rebecca S.; Ziegler, Martin (January 2021). “Antarctic icebergs reorganize ocean circulation during Pleistocene glacials”. Nature. 589 (7841): 236–241. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03094-7. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33442043. S2CID 231598435. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Avoiding a ‘Ghastly Future’: Hard Truths on the State of the Planet”. Yale E360. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Bradshaw, Corey J. A.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Beattie, Andrew; Ceballos, Gerardo; Crist, Eileen; Diamond, Joan; Dirzo, Rodolfo; Ehrlich, Anne H.; Harte, John; Harte, Mary Ellen; Pyke, Graham; Raven, Peter H.; Ripple, William J.; Saltré, Frédérik; Turnbull, Christine; Wackernagel, Mathis; Blumstein, Daniel T. (2021). “Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future”. Frontiers in Conservation Science. 1. doi:10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419. ISSN 2673-611X. Retrieved 12 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Using drones to create local quantum networks”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Liu, Hua-Ying; Tian, Xiao-Hui; Gu, Changsheng; Fan, Pengfei; Ni, Xin; Yang, Ran; Zhang, Ji-Ning; Hu, Mingzhe; Guo, Jian; Cao, Xun; Hu, Xiaopeng; Zhao, Gang; Lu, Yan-Qing; Gong, Yan-Xiao; Xie, Zhenda; Zhu, Shi-Ning (15 January 2021). “Optical-Relayed Entanglement Distribution Using Drones as Mobile Nodes”. Physical Review Letters. 126 (2): 020503. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.020503. PMID 33512193. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “NIH scientists identify nutrient that helps prevent bacterial infection”. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 15 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Stacy, Apollo; Andrade-Oliveira, Vinicius; McCulloch, John A.; Hild, Benedikt; Oh, Ji Hoon; Perez-Chaparro, P. Juliana; Sim, Choon K.; Lim, Ai Ing; Link, Verena M.; Enamorado, Michel; Trinchieri, Giorgio; Segre, Julia A.; Rehermann, Barbara; Belkaid, Yasmine (4 February 2021). “Infection trains the host for microbiota-enhanced resistance to pathogens”. Cell. 184 (3): 615–627.e17. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.12.011. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 33453153. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Staff (15 January 2021). “Covid-19 vaccination associated with adverse drug reactions in elderly people who are frail – 23 deaths associated with covid-19 vaccination of which 13 have been assessed. Common adverse reactions may have contributed to a severe course in elderly people who are frail”. Norwegian Medicines Agency. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
^ Taraldsen, Lars Erik (16 January 2021). “Norway Raises Concern Over Vaccine Jabs for the Elderly”. Bloomberg News. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
^ Torjesen, Ingrid (15 January 2021). “Covid-19: Norway investigates 23 deaths in frail elderly patients after vaccination”. The BMJ. 372: n149. doi:10.1136/bmj.n149. PMID 33451975. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
^ Burghardt, Thomas (17 January 2021). “LauncherOne reaches orbit on second attempt with NASA CubeSats”. NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
^ “Prehistoric bone etchings believed to be among oldest evidence of human use of symbols”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Prévost, Marion; Groman-Yaroslavski, Iris; Crater Gershtein, Kathryn M.; Tejero, José-Miguel; Zaidner, Yossi (20 January 2021). “Early evidence for symbolic behavior in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic: A 120 ka old engraved aurochs bone shaft from the open-air site of Nesher Ramla, Israel”. Quaternary International. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2021.01.002. ISSN 1040-6182. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Study reveals immune driver of brain aging”. medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Minhas, Paras S.; Latif-Hernandez, Amira; McReynolds, Melanie R.; Durairaj, Aarooran S.; Wang, Qian; Rubin, Amanda; Joshi, Amit U.; He, Joy Q.; Gauba, Esha; Liu, Ling; Wang, Congcong; Linde, Miles; Sugiura, Yuki; Moon, Peter K.; Majeti, Ravi; Suematsu, Makoto; Mochly-Rosen, Daria; Weissman, Irving L.; Longo, Frank M.; Rabinowitz, Joshua D.; Andreasson, Katrin I. (February 2021). “Restoring metabolism of myeloid cells reverses cognitive decline in ageing”. Nature. 590 (7844): 122–128. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03160-0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33473210. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “Researchers Find Powerful Protein Doubles Running Capacity, Improves Physical Performance”. NBC Los Angeles. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “‘Exercise protein’ doubles running capacity, restores function and extends healthy lifespans in older mice”. medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Reynolds, Joseph C.; Lai, Rochelle W.; Woodhead, Jonathan S. T.; Joly, James H.; Mitchell, Cameron J.; Cameron-Smith, David; Lu, Ryan; Cohen, Pinchas; Graham, Nicholas A.; Benayoun, Bérénice A.; Merry, Troy L.; Lee, Changhan (20 January 2021). “MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis”. Nature Communications. 12 (1): 470. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20790-0. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7817689. PMID 33473109. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Shah, Karina. “A quarter of all known bee species haven’t been seen since the 1990s”. New Scientist. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Zattara, Eduardo E.; Aizen, Marcelo A. (22 January 2021). “Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness”. One Earth. 4 (1): 114–123. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.005. ISSN 2590-3330. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ “NERVTAG paper on COVID-19 variant of concern B.1.1.7”. GOV.UK. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b “Global ice loss accelerating at record rate, study finds”. The Guardian. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
^ “Global ice loss increases at record rate”. EurekAlert!. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
^ Slater, Thomas; Lawrence, Isobel R.; Otosaka, Inès N.; Shepherd, Andrew; Gourmelen, Noel; Jakob, Livia; Tepes, Paul; Gilbert, Lin; Nienow, Peter (25 January 2021). “Review article: Earth’s ice imbalance”. The Cryosphere. 15 (1): 233–246. doi:10.5194/tc-15-233-2021. ISSN 1994-0416. Retrieved 12 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Puzzling six-exoplanet system with rhythmic movement challenges theories of how planets form”. ESO. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
^ “ESA’s exoplanet watcher Cheops reveals unique planetary system”. ESA. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
^ Leleu, A.; Alibert, Y.; Hara, N. C.; Hooton, M. J.; Wilson, T. G.; Robutel, P.; Delisle, J.-B.; Laskar, J.; Hoyer, S.; Lovis, C.; Bryant, E. M.; Ducrot, E.; Cabrera, J.; Acton, J.; Adibekyan, V.; Allart, R.; Prieto, C. Allende; Alonso, R.; Alves, D.; Anderson, D. R. (20 January 2021). “Six transiting planets and a chain of Laplace resonances in TOI-178”. Astronomy & Astrophysics. arXiv:2101.09260. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039767. ISSN 0004-6361. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
^ “Scientists Achieve ‘Transformational’ Breakthrough in Scaling Quantum Computers”. Science Alert. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
^ “Beyond qubits: next big step to scale up quantum computing”. EQUS. 1 February 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
^ Pauka, S. J.; Das, K.; Kalra, R.; Moini, A.; Yang, Y.; Trainer, M.; Bousquet, A.; Cantaloube, C.; Dick, N.; Gardner, G. C.; Manfra, M. J.; Reilly, D. J. (January 2021). “A cryogenic CMOS chip for generating control signals for multiple qubits”. Nature Electronics. 4 (1): 64–70. doi:10.1038/s41928-020-00528-y. ISSN 2520-1131. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Air purifiers may do more harm than good in confined spaces with airborne viruses”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Dbouk, Talib; Drikakis, Dimitris (1 January 2021). “On airborne virus transmission in elevators and confined spaces”. Physics of Fluids. 33 (1): 011905. doi:10.1063/5.0038180. ISSN 1070-6631. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Crane, Leah. “Wood can easily be turned transparent to make energy-saving windows”. New Scientist. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “A new way to make wood transparent, stronger and lighter than glass”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Xia, Qinqin; Chen, Chaoji; Li, Tian; He, Shuaiming; Gao, Jinlong; Wang, Xizheng; Hu, Liangbing (1 January 2021). “Solar-assisted fabrication of large-scale, patternable transparent wood”. Science Advances. 7 (5): eabd7342. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd7342. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7840122. PMID 33571122.
^ Einhorn, Catrin (27 January 2021). “Shark Populations Are Crashing, With a ‘Very Small Window’ to Avert Disaster”. The New York Times. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
^ Pacoureau, Nathan; Rigby, Cassandra L.; Kyne, Peter M.; Sherley, Richard B.; Winker, Henning; Carlson, John K.; Fordham, Sonja V.; Barreto, Rodrigo; Fernando, Daniel; Francis, Malcolm P.; Jabado, Rima W.; Herman, Katelyn B.; Liu, Kwang-Ming; Marshall, Andrea D.; Pollom, Riley A.; Romanov, Evgeny V.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Yin, Jamie S.; Kindsvater, Holly K.; Dulvy, Nicholas K. (2021). “Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays”. Nature. 589 (7843): 567–571. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9. PMID 33505035. S2CID 231723355.
^ Chappell, Bill (28 January 2021). “South Carolina Reports 1st Known U.S. Cases Of Variant From South Africa”. NPR News. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
^ “Physicists develop record-breaking source for single photons”. phys.org. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Tomm, Natasha; Javadi, Alisa; Antoniadis, Nadia Olympia; Najer, Daniel; Löbl, Matthias Christian; Korsch, Alexander Rolf; Schott, Rüdiger; Valentin, Sascha René; Wieck, Andreas Dirk; Ludwig, Arne; Warburton, Richard John (28 January 2021). “A bright and fast source of coherent single photons”. Nature Nanotechnology: 1–5. arXiv:2007.12654. doi:10.1038/s41565-020-00831-x. ISSN 1748-3395. PMID 33510454. S2CID 220769410. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Borenstein, Seth. “Study: Pandemic’s cleaner air added heat to warming planet”. Washington Post. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ “COVID-19 lockdowns temporarily raised global temperatures”. phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Gettelman, A.; Lamboll, R.; Bardeen, C. G.; Forster, P. M.; Watson‐Parris, D. (2021). “Climate Impacts of COVID-19 Induced Emission Changes”. Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (3): e2020GL091805. doi:10.1029/2020GL091805. ISSN 1944-8007. Retrieved 13 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Russia’s Sputnik V vaccine has 92% efficacy in trial”. BBC News. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
^ Logunov, Denis Y.; Dolzhikova, Inna V.; Shcheblyakov, Dmitry V.; Tukhvatulin, Amir I.; Zubkova, Olga V.; Dzharullaeva, Alina S.; Kovyrshina, Anna V.; Lubenets, Nadezhda L.; Grousova, Daria M.; Erokhova, Alina S.; Botikov, Andrei G.; Izhaeva, Fatima M.; Popova, Olga; Ozharovskaya, Tatiana A.; Esmagambetov, Ilias B.; Favorskaya, Irina A.; Zrelkin, Denis I.; Voronina, Daria V.; Shcherbinin, Dmitry N.; Semikhin, Alexander S.; Simakova, Yana V.; Tokarskaya, Elizaveta A.; Egorova, Daria A.; Shmarov, Maksim M.; Nikitenko, Natalia A.; Gushchin, Vladimir A.; Smolyarchuk, Elena A.; Zyryanov, Sergey K.; Borisevich, Sergei V.; Naroditsky, Boris S.; Gintsburg, Alexander L. (20 February 2021). “Safety and efficacy of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine: an interim analysis of a randomised controlled phase 3 trial in Russia”. The Lancet. 397 (10275): 671–681. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00234-8. ISSN 0140-6736. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ Rettner, Rachael (2 February 2021). “UK coronavirus variant develops vaccine-evading mutation – In a handful of instances, the U.K. coronavirus variant has developed a mutation called E484K, which may impact vaccine effectiveness”. Live Science. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
^ Achenbach, Joel; Booth, William (2 February 2021). “Worrisome coronavirus mutation seen in U.K. variant and in some U.S. samples”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
^ Prostak, Sergio (2 February 2021). “Milky Way’s ‘Most Mysterious Star’ Has a Companion – KIC 8462852, a mysteriously dimming star located about 1,480 light-years away in the constellation of Cygnus, is, in fact, a binary stellar system, made up of a main-sequence F-type star and a smaller red dwarf star”. Sci-News.com. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
^ A., Pearce, Logan; L., Kraus, Adam; J., Dupuy, Trent; W., Mann, Andrew; Daniel, Huber (15 January 2021). “Boyajian’s Star B: The co-moving stellar companion to KIC 8462852”. arXiv:2101.06313.
^ “Climate Change May Have Driven Emergence of Covid”. Courthouse News Service. 5 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
^ “Climate change may have driven the emergence of SARS-CoV-2”. EurekAlert!. 5 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
^ Siegel, Ethan. “New Theory Perfectly Explains ‘Oumuamua Naturally: It’s A Nitrogen Iceberg”. Forbes. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “TO SEE A WORLD IN A SHARD OF ICE: ‘OUMUAMUA AS A FRAGMENT OF N2ICE FROM AN EXO-PLUTO” (PDF). Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Genes for face shape identified”. phys.org. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ “Genes for face shape identified | Scienmag: Latest Science and Health News”. ScienceMag. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Bonfante, Betty; Faux, Pierre; Navarro, Nicolas; Mendoza-Revilla, Javier; Dubied, Morgane; Montillot, Charlotte; Wentworth, Emma; Poloni, Lauriane; Varón-González, Ceferino; Jones, Philip; Xiong, Ziyi; Fuentes-Guajardo, Macarena; Palmal, Sagnik; Chacón-Duque, Juan Camilo; Hurtado, Malena; Villegas, Valeria; Granja, Vanessa; Jaramillo, Claudia; Arias, William; Barquera, Rodrigo; Everardo-Martínez, Paola; Sánchez-Quinto, Mirsha; Gómez-Valdés, Jorge; Villamil-Ramírez, Hugo; Cerqueira, Caio C. Silva de; Hünemeier, Tábita; Ramallo, Virginia; Liu, Fan; Weinberg, Seth M.; Shaffer, John R.; Stergiakouli, Evie; Howe, Laurence J.; Hysi, Pirro G.; Spector, Timothy D.; Gonzalez-José, Rolando; Schüler-Faccini, Lavinia; Bortolini, Maria-Cátira; Acuña-Alonzo, Victor; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Bedoya, Gabriel; Rothhammer, Francisco; Thauvin-Robinet, Christel; Faivre, Laurence; Costedoat, Caroline; Balding, David; Cox, Timothy; Kayser, Manfred; Duplomb, Laurence; Yalcin, Binnaz; Cotney, Justin; Adhikari, Kaustubh; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés (1 February 2021). “A GWAS in Latin Americans identifies novel face shape loci, implicating VPS13B and a Denisovan introgressed region in facial variation”. Science Advances. 7 (6): eabc6160. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abc6160. ISSN 2375-2548. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ “Quantum systems learn joint computing”. phys.org. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Daiss, Severin; Langenfeld, Stefan; Welte, Stephan; Distante, Emanuele; Thomas, Philip; Hartung, Lukas; Morin, Olivier; Rempe, Gerhard (5 February 2021). “A quantum-logic gate between distant quantum-network modules”. Science. 371 (6529): 614–617. doi:10.1126/science.abe3150. ISSN 0036-8075. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Chang, Kenneth; Stirone, Shannon (8 February 2021). “Life on Venus? The Picture Gets Cloudier – Despite doubts from many scientists, a team of researchers who said they had detected an unusual gas in the planet’s atmosphere were still confident of their findings”. The New York Times. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
^ “Emirates Mars Mission: Hope spacecraft enters orbit”. BBC News. 9 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
^ Green, Matthew (9 February 2021). “Fossil fuel pollution causes one in five premature deaths globally: study”. Reuters. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ Vohra, Karn; Vodonos, Alina; Schwartz, Joel; Marais, Eloise A.; Sulprizio, Melissa P.; Mickley, Loretta J. (1 April 2021). “Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem”. Environmental Research. 195: 110754. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. ISSN 0013-9351. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Limiting warming to 2 C requires emissions reductions 80% above Paris Agreement targets”. phys.org. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Liu, Peiran R.; Raftery, Adrian E. (9 February 2021). “Country-based rate of emissions reductions should increase by 80% beyond nationally determined contributions to meet the 2 °C target”. Communications Earth & Environment. 2 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1038/s43247-021-00097-8. ISSN 2662-4435. Retrieved 6 March 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ “Pollution on other planets could help us find aliens, Nasa says”. The Independent. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ “Can Alien Smog Lead Us to Extraterrestrial Civilizations?”. Wired. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Kopparapu, Ravi; Arney, Giada; Haqq-Misra, Jacob; Lustig-Yaeger, Jacob; Villanueva, Geronimo (22 February 2021). “Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution as a Signature of Extraterrestrial Technology”. The Astrophysical Journal. 908 (2): 164. arXiv:2102.05027. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd7f7. ISSN 1538-4357. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Wall, Mike. “China’s first Mars mission, Tianwen-1, successfully enters orbit around Red Planet”. livescience.com. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Rettner, Rachael (12 February 2021). “Diabetes drug led to dramatic weight loss in large trial”. livescience.com. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Wilding, John P.H.; Batterham, Rachel L.; Calanna, Salvatore; Davies, Melanie; Van Gaal, Luc F.; Lingvay, Ildiko; McGowan, Barbara M.; Rosenstock, Julio; Tran, Marie T.D.; Wadden, Thomas A.; Wharton, Sean; Yokote, Koutaro; Zeuthen, Niels; Kushner, Robert F. (10 February 2021). “Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity”. New England Journal of Medicine. 0 (0): null. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2032183. ISSN 0028-4793. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “The solar system’s mysterious ‘ninth planet’ may never have existed”. The Independent. 17 February 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Signs of a hidden Planet Nine in the solar system may not hold up”. Science News. 22 February 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ Napier, K. J.; Gerdes, D. W.; Lin, Hsing Wen; Hamilton, S. J.; Bernstein, G. M.; Bernardinelli, P. H.; Abbott, T. M. C.; Aguena, M.; Annis, J.; Avila, S.; Bacon, D.; Bertin, E.; Brooks, D.; Burke, D. L.; Rosell, A. Carnero; Kind, M. Carrasco; Carretero, J.; Costanzi, M.; da Costa, L. N.; De Vicente, J.; Diehl, H. T.; Doel, P.; Everett, S.; Ferrero, I.; Fosalba, P.; Bellido, J. García; Gruen, D.; Gruendl, R. A.; Gutierrez, G.; Hollowood, D. L.; Honscheid, K.; Hoyle, B.; James, D. J.; Kent, S.; Kuehn, K.; Kuropatkin, N.; Maia, M. A. G.; Menanteau, F.; Miquel, R.; Morgan, R.; Palmese, A.; Paz-Chinchón, F.; Plazas, A. A.; Sanchez, E.; Scarpine, V.; Serrano, S.; Sevilla-Noarbe, I.; Smith, M.; Suchyta, E.; Swanson, M. E. C.; To, C.; Walker, A. R.; Wilkinson, R. D. (18 February 2021). “No Evidence for Orbital Clustering in the Extreme Trans-Neptunian Objects”. arXiv:2102.05601. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Starr, Michelle. “The Origin of Modern Humans Cannot Be Traced to Any One Single Point in Time or Space”. ScienceAlert. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Bergström, Anders; Stringer, Chris; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Skoglund, Pontus (February 2021). “Origins of modern human ancestry”. Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. ISSN 1476-4687. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ “‘Matrix’-style wearable device turns body heat into energy”. news.trust.org. Thomson Reuters Foundation. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Ren, Wei; Sun, Yan; Zhao, Dongliang; Aili, Ablimit; Zhang, Shun; Shi, Chuanqian; Zhang, Jialun; Geng, Huiyuan; Zhang, Jie; Zhang, Lixia; Xiao, Jianliang; Yang, Ronggui (1 February 2021). “High-performance wearable thermoelectric generator with self-healing, recycling, and Lego-like reconfiguring capabilities”. Science Advances. 7 (7): eabe0586. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe0586. ISSN 2375-2548. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ “Arthritis drug tocilizumab cuts deaths from Covid”. BBC News. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Covid: Arthritis drug tocilizumab could save one in 25 coronavirus patients, study finds”. Sky News. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ “Hubble Uncovers Concentration of Small Black Holes”. ESA. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
^ Vitral, Eduardo; Mamon, Gary A. (1 February 2021). “Does NGC 6397 contain an intermediate-mass black hole or a more diffuse inner subcluster?”. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 646: A63. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039650. ISSN 0004-6361. Retrieved 5 March 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Sawal, Ibrahim. “Mini brains genetically altered with CRISPR to be Neanderthal-like”. New Scientist. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Trujillo, Cleber A.; Rice, Edward S.; Schaefer, Nathan K.; Chaim, Isaac A.; Wheeler, Emily C.; Madrigal, Assael A.; Buchanan, Justin; Preissl, Sebastian; Wang, Allen; Negraes, Priscilla D.; Szeto, Ryan A.; Herai, Roberto H.; Huseynov, Alik; Ferraz, Mariana S. A.; Borges, Fernando S.; Kihara, Alexandre H.; Byrne, Ashley; Marin, Maximillian; Vollmers, Christopher; Brooks, Angela N.; Lautz, Jonathan D.; Semendeferi, Katerina; Shapiro, Beth; Yeo, Gene W.; Smith, Stephen E. P.; Green, Richard E.; Muotri, Alysson R. (12 February 2021). “Reintroduction of the archaic variant of NOVA1 in cortical organoids alters neurodevelopment”. Science. 371 (6530). doi:10.1126/science.aax2537. ISSN 0036-8075. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ “Transient editing catches the eye”. Nature Biomedical Engineering. February 2021. pp. 127–127. doi:10.1038/s41551-021-00695-z. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Yin, Di; Ling, Sikai; Wang, Dawei; Dai, Yao; Jiang, Hao; Zhou, Xujiao; Paludan, Soren R.; Hong, Jiaxu; Cai, Yujia (11 January 2021). “Targeting herpes simplex virus with CRISPR–Cas9 cures herpetic stromal keratitis in mice”. Nature Biotechnology: 1–11. doi:10.1038/s41587-020-00781-8. ISSN 1546-1696. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Ling, Sikai; Yang, Shiqi; Hu, Xinde; Yin, Di; Dai, Yao; Qian, Xiaoqing; Wang, Dawei; Pan, Xiaoyong; Hong, Jiaxu; Sun, Xiaodong; Yang, Hui; Paludan, Soren Riis; Cai, Yujia (February 2021). “Lentiviral delivery of co-packaged Cas9 mRNA and a Vegfa -targeting guide RNA prevents wet age-related macular degeneration in mice”. Nature Biomedical Engineering. 5 (2): 144–156. doi:10.1038/s41551-020-00656-y. ISSN 2157-846X. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b Griffiths, Huw J.; et al. (15 February 2021). “Breaking All the Rules: The First Recorded Hard Substrate Sessile Benthic Community Far Beneath an Antarctic Ice Shelf”. Frontiers in Marine Science. 8. doi:10.3389/fmars.2021.642040. S2CID 231920652. Retrieved 15 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Ferreira, Becky (15 February 2021). “Where Did the Dinosaur-Killing Impactor Come From? – A new study blames a comet fragment for the death of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. But most experts maintain that an asteroid caused this cataclysmic event”. The New York Times. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
^ Siraj, Amir (15 February 2021). “Breakup of a long-period comet as the origin of the dinosaur extinction”. Scientific Reports. 11 (3803): 3803. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82320-2. PMC 7884440. PMID 33589634. Retrieved 15 February 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Guenot, Marianne (15 February 2021). “Scientists accidentally found life under 3,000 feet of ice in Antarctica. ‘Never in a million years’ would they have expected it, the lead scientist said”. Business Insider. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
^ Simon, Matt (15 February 2021). “Scientists Accidentally Discover Strange Creatures Under a Half Mile of Ice – Researchers only drilled through an Antarctic ice shelf to sample sediment. Instead, they found animals that weren’t supposed to be there”. Wired. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
^ Schwartz, John (8 February 2021). “Achoo! Climate Change Lengthening Pollen Season in U.S., Study Shows”. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Anderegg, William R. L.; Abatzoglou, John T.; Anderegg, Leander D. L.; Bielory, Leonard; Kinney, Patrick L.; Ziska, Lewis (16 February 2021). “Anthropogenic climate change is worsening North American pollen seasons”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (7). doi:10.1073/pnas.2013284118. ISSN 0027-8424. Retrieved 7 March 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Hunt, Katie (17 February 2021). “World’s oldest DNA sequenced from a mammoth that lived more than a million years ago”. CNN News. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
^ Callaway, Ewen (17 February 2021). “Million-year-old mammoth genomes shatter record for oldest ancient DNA – Permafrost-preserved teeth, up to 1.6 million years old, identify a new kind of mammoth in Siberia”. Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00436-x. PMID 33597786. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
^ van der Valk, Tom; Pečnerová, Patrícia; Díez-del-Molino, David; Bergström, Anders; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Hartmann, Stefanie; Xenikoudakis, Georgios; Thomas, Jessica A.; Dehasque, Marianne; Sağlıcan, Ekin; Fidan, Fatma Rabia; Barnes, Ian; Liu, Shanlin; Somel, Mehmet; Heintzman, Peter D.; Nikolskiy, Pavel; Shapiro, Beth; Skoglund, Pontus; Hofreiter, Michael; Lister, Adrian M.; Götherström, Anders; Dalén, Love (17 February 2021). “Million-year-old DNA sheds light on the genomic history of mammoths”. Nature: 1–5. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03224-9. ISSN 1476-4687. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b Konkoly, Karen R.; Appel, Kristoffer; Chabani, Emma; Mangiaruga, Anastasia; Gott, Jarrod; Mallett, Remington; Caughran, Bruce; Witkowski, Sarah; Whitmore, Nathan W.; Mazurek, Christopher Y.; Berent, Jonathan B.; Weber, Frederik D.; Türker, Başak; Leu-Semenescu, Smaranda; Maranci, Jean-Baptiste; Pipa, Gordon; Arnulf, Isabelle; Oudiette, Delphine; Dresler, Martin; Paller, Ken A. (18 February 2021). “Real-time dialogue between experimenters and dreamers during REM sleep”. Current Biology. 0 (0). doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.026. ISSN 0960-9822. Retrieved 7 March 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ mars.nasa.gov. “Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover”. mars.nasa.gov. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
^ Overbye, Dennis (18 February 2021). “A Famous Black Hole Gets a Massive Update – Cygnus X-1, one of the first identified black holes, is much weightier than expected, raising new questions about how such objects form”. The New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
^ Miller-Jones, James C. A.; et al. (18 February 2021). “Cygnus X-1 contains a 21–solar mass black hole—Implications for massive star winds”. Science: eabb3363. doi:10.1126/science.abb3363. PMID 33602863. S2CID 231951746. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
^ “Study finds real-time dialogue with a dreaming person is possible”. medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Mitchell, Alanna (18 February 2021). “A Hitchhiker’s Guide to an Ancient Geomagnetic Disruption”. The New York Times. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ Cooper, Alan; Turney, Chris S. M.; Palmer, Jonathan; Hogg, Alan; McGlone, Matt; Wilmshurst, Janet; Lorrey, Andrew M.; Heaton, Timothy J.; Russell, James M.; McCracken, Ken; Anet, Julien G.; Rozanov, Eugene; Friedel, Marina; Suter, Ivo; Peter, Thomas; Muscheler, Raimund; Adolphi, Florian; Dosseto, Anthony; Faith, J. Tyler; Fenwick, Pavla; Fogwill, Christopher J.; Hughen, Konrad; Lipson, Mathew; Liu, Jiabo; Nowaczyk, Norbert; Rainsley, Eleanor; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Sebastianelli, Paolo; Souilmi, Yassine; Stevenson, Janelle; Thomas, Zoë; Tobler, Raymond; Zech, Roland (19 February 2021). “A global environmental crisis 42,000 years ago”. Science. 371 (6531): 811–818. doi:10.1126/science.abb8677. ISSN 0036-8075. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Why we should worry about computer suffering”. IAI TV – Changing how the world thinks. 2 March 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Thomas Metzinger (19 February 2021). “Artificial Suffering: An Argument for a Global Moratorium on Synthetic Phenomenology”. Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness: 1–24. doi:10.1142/S270507852150003X. ISSN 2705-0785. Retrieved 7 March 2021. CC-BY icon.svg Available under CC BY 4.0.
^ Starr, Michelle (22 February 2021). “The White Dots in This Image Are Not Stars or Galaxies. They’re Black Holes”. ScienceAlert. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
^ Gasperin, F. De; Williams, W. L.; Best, P.; Brüggen, M.; Brunetti, G.; Cuciti, V.; Dijkema, T. J.; Hardcastle, M. J.; Norden, M. J.; Offringa, A.; Shimwell, T.; Weeren, R. van (18 February 2021). “The LOFAR LBA Sky Survey. I. Survey description and preliminary data release”. Astronomy & Astrophysics. arXiv:2102.09238. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140316. ISSN 0004-6361. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ correspondent, Fiona Harvey Environment (26 February 2021). “Atlantic Ocean circulation at weakest in a millennium, say scientists”. The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ “Gulf Stream System at its weakest in over a millennium”. phys.org. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Caesar, L.; McCarthy, G. D.; Thornalley, D. J. R.; Cahill, N.; Rahmstorf, S. (25 February 2021). “Current Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation weakest in last millennium”. Nature Geoscience: 1–3. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00699-z. ISSN 1752-0908. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
^ Page, Jeremy; Hinshaw, Drew; McKay, Betsy (26 February 2021). “In Hunt for Covid-19 Origin, Patient Zero Points to Second Wuhan Market – The man with the first confirmed infection of the new coronavirus told the WHO team that his parents had shopped there”. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
^ Davis, Josh (9 March 2021). “Fireball meteorite that blazed across the UK recovered from a driveway”. Natural History Museum, London. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
^ “Scientists use lipid nanoparticles to precisely target gene editing to the liver”. EurekAlert!. 1 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ Andreoni, Manuela; Londoño, Ernesto; Casado, Leticia (3 March 2021). “Brazil’s Covid Crisis Is a Warning to the Whole World, Scientists Say – Brazil is seeing a record number of deaths, and the spread of a more contagious coronavirus variant that may cause reinfection”. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
^ Zimmer, Carl (1 March 2021). “Virus Variant in Brazil Infected Many Who Had Already Recovered From Covid-19 – The first detailed studies of the so-called P.1 variant show how it devastated a Brazilian city. Now scientists want to know what it will do elsewhere”. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
^ Mandavilli, Apoorva (5 March 2021). “In Oregon, Scientists Find a Virus Variant With a Worrying Mutation – In a single sample, geneticists discovered a version of the coronavirus first identified in Britain with a mutation originally reported in South Africa”. The New York Times. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Chen, Rita E.; et al. (4 March 2021). “Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies”. Nature Medicine. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01294-w. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
^ Staff (5 March 2021). “Welcome to ‘Octavia E. Butler Landing'”. NASA. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ “Most distant quasar with powerful radio jets discovered”. ESO. 8 March 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ “The Sloan Digital Sky Survey: Mapping the Universe”. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
^ Chan, DM (September 2019). “Most powerful space telescope set for 2021 launch”. Asia Times. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ “James Webb Space Telescope to launch in October 2021”. www.esa.int. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
^ Hambleton, Kathryn (20 February 2018). “Artemis I Overview”. NASA. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
^ “HOME”. UN Climate Change Conference (COP26) at the SEC – Glasgow 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
^ Jump up to: a b CERN. “LHC prepares for new achievements”. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ Hays, Brooks. “CERN reveals plans for new experiment to search for dark matter particles”. United Press International. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ Tech2 News Staff (3 September 2019). “CERN’S LARGE HADRON COLLIDER GETS MAJOR UPGRADE, EXPERIMENTS TO RESUME IN 2021”. Tech2. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ Wetzel, James. “USCMS completes phase 1 upgrade program for CMS detector at CERN”. Fermilab. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ Zhang, Emily. “SpaceX’s Dark Satellites Are Still Too Bright for Astronomers”. Scientific American. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
^ “Vera C. Rubin Observatory”. AURA Astronomy. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
^ Wu, Katherine J. “For the First Time, a National U.S. Observatory Has Been Named for a Female Astronomer: Vera Rubin”. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
^ “What Does the Future of Astronomy Hold? We’ll Find Out Soon”. Discover Magazine. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
^ Singh, Surendra (5 December 2020). “Cyclones can stall last sat launch of this year; Chandrayaan-3 cams will provide live feed during final descent: Isro chief”. The Times of India. TNN. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
^ “Ariane 6 maiden flight likely slipping to 2021”. SpaceNews. 20 May 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
^ Boyle, Alan (10 October 2018). “Blue Origin resets schedule: First crew to space in 2019, first orbital launch in 2021”. GeekWire. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
^ SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket Will Launch Private Moon Lander in 2021. Mike Wall, Space.com. 2 October 2019. Quote: “But Peregrine will fly on a different rocket, United Launch Alliance’s Vulcan Centaur, which is still in development. The 2021 Peregrine mission will be the first for both the lander and its launch vehicle.”
^ Chang, Kenneth (6 January 2017). “A Metal Ball the Size of Massachusetts That NASA Wants to Explore”. The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b “NASA’s planetary science program shifts priority to asteroid missions”. SpaceNews. 19 August 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
^ “Coalition of European Funders Announces ‘Plan S’ to Require Full OA, Cap APCs, & Disallow Publication in Hybrid Journals”. SPARC. 4 September 2018.
^ “Plan S: Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications” (PDF). Science Europe. 4 September 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
^ “European countries demand that publicly funded research should be free to all”. The Economist. 15 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
^ “‘Plan S’ and ‘cOAlition S’ – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications”. www.coalition-s.org. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
^ NASA. “Total Lunar Eclipse of 2021 May 26” (PDF). Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ NASA. “Annular Solar Eclipse of 2021 Jun 10”. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ NASA. “Partial Lunar Eclipse of 2021 Nov 19” (PDF). Retrieved 10 September 2019.
^ NASA. “Total Solar Eclipse of 2021 Dec 04”. Retrieved 10 September 2019
External links
Media related to 2021 in science at Wikimedia Commons
en.wikipedia.org /wiki/2021_in_science
2021 in science
Contributors to Wikimedia projects
63-80 minutes
A number of significant scientific events that occurred or are scheduled to occur in 2021.
Events[edit]
January[edit]
Science Summary for this section (January)
.
.
*3000 BCE*
Around 3000 BC: Units of measurement are developed in the major Bronze Age civilisations:
Egypt,
Mesopotamia,
Elam
and the Indus Valley.
.
The Indus Valley may have been the major innovator on this, as the first measurement devices (rulers, protractors, weighing scales) were invented in Lothal in Gujarat, India.
.
*THE 300 BCEs* —>
(“mandragora” (containing ‘atropin’) was described by ‘theophrastus’ as a treatment for…)
‘wounds’
‘gout’
‘sleeplessness’
.
(he also classified it as a ‘love potion’)
.
(by the ‘000s’, ‘dioscorides’ recognized wine of ‘mandrake’ as an ‘anaesthetic’ for treatment of ‘pain’ + ‘sleeplessness’)
(to be administered prior to ‘surgery’ or ‘cautery’)
.
.
*2020* –>
*in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, biotechnology companies, national governments, and universities work to accelerate progression to an effective COVID-19 vaccine*
.
2020 –>
NASA and SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory of Infra-red Astronomy) discovered about 12oz of surface water in one of the moon’s largest visible crater.
This has sparked new motivation to venture into space.
We continue to discover water is more common than we originally thought.
.
*2019* —>
(the first ever image of a ‘black hole’ was captured, using 8 different ‘telescopes’ taking simultaneous pictures, timed with extremely precise ‘atomic clocks’)
.
.
.
*as of ’11 june 2020’* –>
The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer.
For the purposes of this article, we do not regard mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count).
We begin our timeline at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to estimate the timeline before this point, such as of the discovery of
counting,
natural numbers
and arithmetic.
To avoid overlap with Timeline of historic inventions, we do not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field
Bronze Age
Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were requirements resulting from the increase in trade,
and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period.
For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley,
with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC.
It is to be noted that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries in the region must be made based only on archaeological digs.
.
.
.
Mathematics[edit]
Numbers, measurement and arithmetic[edit]
*1800 BCE*
Fractions were first studied by the Egyptians in their study of Egyptian fractions.
.
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
2100 BCE
The concept of ‘area’ is first recognised in Babylonian clay tablets and 3-dimensional volume is discussed in an Egyptian papyrus.
This begins the study of geometry.
Early 2nd millennium BC:
Similar triangles and side-ratios are studied in Egypt…
(e.g. in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, a copy of an older Middle Kingdom text)
….for the construction of pyramids, paving the way for the field of trigonometry
.
Algebra
2100 BC:
Quadratic equations, in the form of problems relating the areas and sides of rectangles, are solved by Babylonians
.
Number theory and discrete mathematics
2000 BC:
Pythagorean triples are first discussed in Babylon and Egypt, and appear on later manuscripts such as the Berlin Papyrus 6619.
.
Numerical mathematics and algorithms
2000 BCE
Multiplication tables in Babylon
.
1800 BC – 1600 BC:
A numerical approximation for the square root of two, accurate to 6 decimal places, is recorded on YBC 7289, a Babylonian clay tablet believed to belong to a student
.
19th to 17th century BCE
A Babylonian tablet uses 25⁄8 as an approximation for π, which has an error of 0.5%
.
Early 2nd millennium BCE:
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (a copy of an older Middle Kingdom text) contains the first documented instance of inscribing a polygon (in this case, an octagon) into a circle to estimate the value of π
.
Notation and conventions
3000 BC: The first deciphered numeral system is that of the Egyptian numerals, a sign-value system (as opposed to a place-value system).[15]
2000 BC: Primitive positional notation for numerals is seen in the Babylonian cuneiform numerals.[16] However, the lack of clarity around the notion of zero made their system highly ambiguous (e.g. 13200 would be written the same as 132).[17]
Astronomy[edit]
Early 2nd millennium BC: The periodicity of planetary phenomenon is recognised by Babylonian astronomers.
Biology and anatomy[edit]
Early 2nd millennium BC: Ancient Egyptians study anatomy, as recorded in the Edwin Smith Papyrus. They identified the heart and its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder, and correctly identified that blood vessels emanated from the heart (however, they also believed that tears, urine, and semen, but not saliva and sweat, originated in the heart, see Cardiocentric hypothesis).[18]
Iron Age[edit]
Mathematics[edit]
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
c. 700 BC: The Pythagoras theorem is discovered by Baudhayana in the Hindu Shulba Sutras in Upanishadic India.[19] However, Indian mathematics, especially North Indian mathematics, generally did not have a tradition of communicating proofs, and it is not fully certain that Baudhayana or Apastamba knew of a proof.
Number theory and discrete mathematics[edit]
c. 700 BC: Pell’s equations are first studied by Baudhayana in India, the first diophantine equations known to be studied.[20]
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
c. 600 BC: Thales of Miletus discovers Thales’s theorem.
Biology and anatomy[edit]
600 BC – 200 BC: The Sushruta Samhita (3.V) shows an understanding of musculoskeletal structure (including joints, ligaments and muscles and their functions).[21]
600 BC – 200 BC: The Sushruta Samhita refers to the cardiovascular system as a closed circuit.[22]
600 BC – 200 BC: The Sushruta Samhita (3.IX) identifies the existence of nerves.[21]
[edit]
Linguistics[edit]
c. 700 BC: Grammar is first studied in India (note that Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa predates Pāṇini).
500 BC – 0 AD[edit]
The Greeks make numerous advances in mathematics and astronomy through the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods.
Mathematics[edit]
Logic and proof[edit]
4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation.
4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar.[23][24]
c. 300 BC: Greek mathematician Euclid in the Elements describes a primitive form of formal proof and axiomatic systems. However, modern mathematicians generally believe that his axioms were highly incomplete, and that his definitions were not really used in his proofs.
Numbers, measurement and arithmetic[edit]
4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property.[25]
4th-3rd century BC: In Mauryan India, The Jain mathematical text Surya Prajnapati draws a distinction between countable and uncountable infinities.[26]
3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India studies binary numbers, making him the first to study the radix (numerical base) in history.[27]
Algebra[edit]
5th century BC: Possible date of the discovery of the triangular numbers (i.e. the sum of consecutive integers), by the Pythagoreans.[28]
c. 300 BC: Finite geometric progressions are studied by Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt.[29]
3rd century BC: Archimedes relates problems in geometric series to those in arithmetic series, foreshadowing the logarithm.[30]
190 BC: Magic squares appear in China. The theory of magic squares can be considered the first example of a vector space.
165-142 BC: Zhang Cang in Northern China is credited with the development of Gaussian elimination.[31]
Number theory and discrete mathematics[edit]
c. 500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers.[32][33]
4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational.
4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory
.
3rd century BC:
Pingala in Mauryan India describes the Fibonacci sequence
.
c. 300 BC: Euclid proves the infinitude of primes.[36]
c. 300 BC: Euclid proves the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
c. 300 BC: Euclid discovers the Euclidean algorithm.
3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India discovers the binomial coefficients in a combinatorial context and the additive formula for generating them {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tbinom {n-1}{r}}+{\tbinom {n-1}{r-1}}[37][38], i.e. a prose description of Pascal’s triangle, and derived formulae relating to the sums and alternating sums of binomial coefficients. It has been suggested that he may have also discovered the binomial theorem in this context.[39]
3rd century BC: Eratosthenes discovers the Sieve of Eratosthenes
.
Geometry and trigonometry
*the 400s BCE*
The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions
.
4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections.[42]
4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry.[43]
c. 300 BC: Euclid publishes the Elements, a compendium on classical Euclidean geometry, including: elementary theorems on circles, definitions of the centers of a triangle, the tangent-secant theorem, the law of sines and the law of cosines.[44]
3rd century BC: Archimedes derives a formula for the volume of a sphere in The Method of Mechanical Theorems.[45]
3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates areas and volumes relating to conic sections, such as the area bounded between a parabola and a chord, and various volumes of revolution.[46]
3rd century BC: Archimedes discovers the sum/difference identity for trigonometric functions in the form of the “Theorem of Broken Chords”.[44]
c. 200 BC: Apollonius of Perga discovers Apollonius’s theorem.
c. 200 BC: Apollonius of Perga assigns equations to curves.
Analysis[edit]
Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit.
3rd century BC: Archimedes makes use of infinitesimals.[47]
3rd century BC: Archimedes further develops the method of exhaustion into an early description of integration..[48][49]
3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates tangents to non-trigonometric curves.[50]
Numerical mathematics and algorithms[edit]
3rd century BC: Archimedes uses the method of exhaustion to construct a strict inequality bounding the value of π within an interval of 0.002.
Physics[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC.[51] It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC[52], but it is not clear when this knowledge developed in India.
500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight.[53]
260 BC: Aristarchus of Samos proposes a basic heliocentric model of the universe.[54]
c. 200 BC: Apollonius of Perga develops epicycles. While an incorrect model, it was a precursor to the development of Fourier series.
2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers the apsidal precession of the Moon’s orbit.[55]
2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers Axial precession.
Mechanics[edit]
3rd century BC: Archimedes develops the field of statics, introducing notions such as the center of gravity, mechanical equilibrium, the study of levers, and hydrostatics.
350-50 BC: Clay tablets from (possibly Hellenistic-era) Babylon describe the mean speed theorem.[56]
Optics[edit]
4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon.
c. 300 BC: Euclid’s Optics introduces the field of geometric optics, making basic considerations on the sizes of images.
Thermal physics[edit]
460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion.[57]
Biology and anatomy[edit]
4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the distinction between arteries and veins.
4th century BC: Aristotle differentiates between near-sighted and far-sightedness.[58] Graeco-Roman physician Galen would later use the term “myopia” for near-sightedness.
[edit]
Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī, an early Indian grammatical treatise that constructs a formal system for the purpose of describing Sanskrit grammar
.
.
Economics
Late 4th century BC: Kautilya establishes the field of economics with the Arthashastra (literally “Science of wealth”), a prescriptive treatise on economics and statecraft for Mauryan India
Linguistics[edit]
4th century BC: Pāṇini develops a full-fledged formal grammar (for Sanskrit).
Astronomical and geospatial measurements[edit]
3rd century BC: Eratosthenes measures the circumference of the Earth.[60]
2nd century BC: Hipparchos measures the sizes of and distances to the moon and sun.[61]
0 AD – 500 AD[edit]
Mathematics and astronomy flourish during the Golden Age of India (4th to 6th centuries AD) under the Gupta Empire. Meanwhile, Greece and its colonies have entered the Roman period in the last few decades of the preceding millennium, and Greek science is negatively impacted by the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the economic decline that follows.
.
.
Mathematics
Numbers, measurement and arithmetic[edit]
Fragment of papyrus with clear Greek script, lower-right corner suggests a tiny zero with a double-headed arrow shape above it
Example of the early Greek symbol for zero (lower right corner) from a 2nd-century papyrus
210 AD: Negative numbers are accepted as numeric by the late Han-era Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.[62] Later, Liu Hui of Cao Wei (during the Three Kingdoms period) writes down laws regarding the arithmetic of negative numbers.[63]
Algebra[edit]
499 AD: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the square-pyramidal numbers (the sums of consecutive square numbers).[64]
499 AD: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers (the sums of consecutive cube numbers).[64]
Number theory and discrete mathematics[edit]
3rd century AD: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations.
499 AD: Aryabhata discovers Bezout’s identity, a foundational result to the theory of principal ideal domains.[65]
499 AD: Aryabhata develops Kuṭṭaka, an algorithm very similar to the Extended Euclidean algorithm.[65]
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
c. 60 AD: Heron’s formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria.[66]
c. 100 AD: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry.[67]
4th to 5th centuries: The modern fundamental trigonometric functions, sine and cosine, are described in the Siddhantas of India.[68] This formulation of trigonometry is an improvement over the earlier Greek functions, in that it lends itself more seamlessly to polar co-ordinates and the later complex interpretation of the trigonometric functions.
Numerical mathematics and algorithms[edit]
By the 4th century AD: a square root finding algorithm with quartic convergence, known as the Bakhshali method (after the Bakhshali manuscript which records it), is discovered in India.[69]
499 AD: Aryabhata describes a numerical algorithm for finding cube roots.[70][71]
499 AD: Aryabhata develops an algorithm to solve the Chinese remainder theorem.[72]
1st to 4th century AD: A precursor to long division, known as “galley division” is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD[73], although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD.[74]
Notation and conventions[edit]
Diophantus’ Arithmetica (pictured: a Latin translation from 1621) contained the first known use of symbolic mathematical notation. Despite the relative decline in the importance of the sciences during the Roman era, several Greek mathematicians continued to flourish in Alexandria.
c. 150 AD: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself.
3rd century AD: Diophantus uses a primitive form of algebraic symbolism, which is quickly forgotten.[75]
By the 4th century AD: The present Hindu–Arabic numeral system with place-value numerals develops in Gupta-era India, and is attested in the Bakhshali Manuscript of Gandhara.[76] The superiority of the system over existing place-value and sign-value systems arises from its treatment of zero as an ordinary numeral.
By the 5th century AD: The decimal separator is developed in India[77], as recorded in al-Uqlidisi’s later commentary on Indian mathematics.[78]
By 499 AD: Aryabhata’s work shows the use of the modern fraction notation, known as bhinnarasi.[79]
Physics[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
c. 150 AD: Ptolemy’s Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths.
2nd century AD: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius.
By the 5th century AD: The elliptical orbits of planets are discovered in India by at least the time of Aryabhata, and are used for the calculations of orbital periods and eclipse timings.[80]
499 AD: Historians speculate that Aryabhata may have used an underlying heliocentric model for his astronomical calculations, which would make it the first computational heliocentric model in history (as opposed to Aristarchus’s model in form).[81][82][83] This claim is based on his description of the planetary period about the sun (śīghrocca), but has been met with criticism.[84]
Optics[edit]
2nd century – Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and Including the first known table of refractive angles.
Biology and anatomy[edit]
2nd century AD: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs.[85]
Astronomical and geospatial measurements[edit]
499 AD: Aryabhata creates a particularly accurate eclipse chart. As an example of its accuracy, 18th century scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations (based on Aryabhata’s computational paradigm) of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752) were long by 68 seconds.[86]
500 AD – 1000 AD[edit]
The age of Imperial Karnataka was a period of significant advancement in Indian mathematics.
The Golden Age of Indian mathematics and astronomy continues after the end of the Gupta empire, especially in Southern India during the era of the Rashtrakuta, Western Chalukya and Vijayanagara empires of Karnataka, which variously patronised Hindu and Jain mathematicians. In addition, the Middle East enters the Islamic Golden Age through contact with other civilisations, and China enters a golden period during the Tang and Song dynasties.
Mathematics[edit]
Numbers, measurement and arithmetic[edit]
628 AD: Brahmagupta writes down rules for arithmetic involving zero[87], as well as for negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter introduced earlier by Liu Hui.
Algebra[edit]
628 AD: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation.[88]
9th century AD: Jain mathematician Mahāvīra writes down a factorisation for the difference of cubes.[89]
Number theory and discrete mathematics[edit]
628 AD: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta’s identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell’s equation.
628 AD: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell’s equation.
c. 850 AD: Mahāvīra derives the expression for the binomial coefficient in terms of factorials, {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tfrac {n!}{r!(n-r)!}}.[38]
c. 975 AD: Halayudha organizes the binomial coefficients into a triangle, i.e. Pascal’s triangle.[38]
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
628 AD: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta’s formula, a generalization of Heron’s formula to cyclic quadrilaterals.
Analysis[edit]
10th century AD: Manjula in India discovers the derivative, deducing that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine.[90]
.
.
Probability and statistics
9th century AD: Al-Kindi’s Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages contains the first use of ‘statistical inference’
.
Numerical mathematics and algorithms
628 AD: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta’s interpolation formula.
629 AD: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational function, in the sine approximation formula that bears his name.
816 AD: Jain mathematician Virasena describes the integer logarithm.[92]
9th century AD: Algorisms (arithmetical algorithms on numbers written in place-value system) are described by al-Khwarizmi in his kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Book of Indian computation) and kitab al-jam’ wa’l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic).
9th century AD: Mahāvīra discovers the first algorithm for writing fractions as Egyptian fractions[93], which is in fact a slightly more general form of the Greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions.
Notation and conventions[edit]
628 AD: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe.
Physics[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
6th century AD: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature.[94]
Mechanics[edit]
c. 525 AD: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight.[95] His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time.
Optics[edit]
984 AD: Ibn Sahl discovers Snell’s law.[96][97]
Astronomical and geospatial measurements[edit]
10th century AD: Kashmiri[98][99][100][101] astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala lists names and estimates periods of certain comets.[94]
1000 AD – 1500 AD[edit]
Mathematics[edit]
Algebra[edit]
11th century: Alhazen discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers defined as the sums of consecutive quartic powers.
Number theory and discrete mathematics[edit]
c. 1000 AD: al-Karaji uses mathematical induction.[102]
12th century AD: Bhāskara II develops the Chakravala method, solving Pell’s equation.[103]
Geometry and trigonometry[edit]
15th century: Parameshvara discovers a formula for the circumradius of a quadrilateral.[104]
Analysis[edit]
1380 AD: Madhava of Sangamagrama develops the Taylor series, and derives the Taylor series representation for the sine, cosine and arctangent functions, and uses it to produce the Leibniz series for π.[105]
1380 AD: Madhava of Sangamagrama discusses error terms in infinite series in the context of his infinite series for π.[106]
1380 AD: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers continued fractions and uses them to solve transcendental equations.[107]
1380 AD: The Kerala school develops convergence tests for infinite series.[105]
c. 1500 AD: Nilakantha Somayaji discovers an infinite series for π.[108][109]
Numerical mathematics and algorithms[edit]
12th century AD: al-Tusi develops a numerical algorithm to solve cubic equations.
1380 AD: Madhava of Sangamagrama solves transcendental equations by iteration.[107]
1380 AD: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers the most precise estimate of π in the medieval world through his infinite series, a strict inequality with uncertainty 3e-13.
Physics[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
1058 AD: al-Zarqālī in Islamic Spain discovers the apsidal precession of the sun.
c. 1500 AD: Nilakantha Somayaji develops a model similar to the Tychonic system. His model has been described as mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system due to correctly considering the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus.[90][110]
Mechanics[edit]
12th century AD: Jewish polymath Baruch ben Malka in Iraq formulates a qualitative form of Newton’s second law for constant forces.[111][112]
Optics[edit]
11th century: Alhazen systematically studies optics and refraction, which would later be important in making the connection between geometric (ray) optics and wave theory.
11th century: Shen Kuo discovers atmospheric refraction and provides the correct explanation of rainbow phenomenon
c1290 – Eye Glasses are invented in Northern Italy,[113] possibly Pisa, demonstrating knowledge of human biology[citation needed] and optics, to offer bespoke works that compensate for an individual human disability.
Astronomical and geospatial measurements[edit]
11th century: Shen Kuo discovers the concepts of true north and magnetic declination.
11th century: Shen Kuo develops the field of geomorphology and natural climate change.
[edit]
Economics[edit]
1295 AD: Scottish priest Duns Scotus writes about the mutual beneficence of trade.[114]
14th century AD: French priest Jean Buridan provides a basic explanation of the price system.
Philosophy of science[edit]
1220s – Robert Grosseteste writes on optics, and the production of lenses, while asserting models should be developed from observations, and predictions of those models verified through observation, in a precursor to the scientific method.[115]
1267 – Roger Bacon publishes his Opus Majus, compiling translated Classical Greek, and Arabic works on mathematics, optics, and alchemy into a volume, and details his methods for evaluating the theories, particularly those of Ptolemy’s 2nd century Optics, and his findings on the production of lenses, asserting “theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses”, in a precursor to the peer reviewed scientific method.
16th century[edit]
The Scientific Revolution occurs in Europe around this period, greatly accelerating the progress of science and contributing to the rationalization of the natural sciences.
Mathematics[edit]
Numbers, measurement and arithmetic[edit]
1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers.[116]
1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic.[117]
Algebra[edit]
c. 1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x^3 = px + q.[118][119]
16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term).
16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term).
16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta’s formulas.
Probability and statistics[edit]
1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability.[120]
Numerical mathematics and algorithms[edit]
16th century: François Viète discovers Viète’s formula for π.[121]
Notation and conventions[edit]
Various pieces of modern symbolic notation were introduced in this period, notably:
1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis.
1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign.[122][123]
1591: François Viète’s New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation.
Physics[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, which assuming Aryabhata did not use a heliocentric model, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history.
Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena.
Biology and anatomy[edit]
1543 – Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy
[edit]
Economics[edit]
1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham’s law: (“Bad money drowns out good”).[124]
17th century[edit]
1600 – William Gilbert: Earth’s magnetic field
1608 – Earliest record of an optical telescope
1609 – Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion
1610 – Galileo Galilei: Sidereus Nuncius: telescopic observations
1614 – John Napier: use of logarithms for calculation[125]
1619 – Johannes Kepler: third law of planetary motion
1620 – Appearance of the first compound microscopes in Europe
1628 – Willebrord Snellius: the law of refraction also known as Snell’s law
1628 – William Harvey: blood circulation
1638 – Galileo Galilei: laws of falling body
1643 – Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer
1662 – Robert Boyle: Boyle’s law of ideal gas
1665 – Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first peer reviewed scientific journal published.
1665 – Robert Hooke: discovers the cell
1668 – Francesco Redi: disproved idea of spontaneous generation
1669 – Nicholas Steno: Proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy
1669 – Jan Swammerdam: epigenesis in insects
1672 – Sir Isaac Newton: discovers that white light is a spectrum of a mixture of distinct coloured rays
1673 – Christiaan Huygens: first study of oscillating system and design of pendulum clocks
1675 – Leibniz, Newton: infinitesimal calculus
1675 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observes microorganisms using a refined simple microscope
1676 – Ole Rømer: first measurement of the speed of light
1687 – Sir Isaac Newton: classical mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion
18th century[edit]
1735 – Carl Linnaeus described a new system for classifying plants in Systema Naturae
1745 – Ewald Jürgen Georg von Kleist first capacitor, the Leyden jar
1750 – Joseph Black: describes latent heat
1751 – Benjamin Franklin: Lightning is electrical
1755 – Immanuel Kant: Gaseous Hypothesis in Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven
1761 – Mikhail Lomonosov: discovery of the atmosphere of Venus
1763 – Thomas Bayes: publishes the first version of Bayes’ theorem, paving the way for Bayesian probability
1771 – Charles Messier: Publishes catalogue of astronomical objects (Messier Objects) now known to include galaxies, star clusters, and nebulae.
1778 – Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory
1781 – William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus, expanding the known boundaries of the solar system for the first time in modern history
1785 – William Withering: publishes the first definitive account of the use of foxglove (digitalis) for treating dropsy
1787 – Jacques Charles: Charles’s law of ideal gas
1789 – Antoine Lavoisier: law of conservation of mass, basis for chemistry, and the beginning of modern chemistry
1796 – Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact
1796 – Edward Jenner: small pox historical accounting
1796 – Hanaoka Seishū: develops general anaesthesia
1800 – Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery
19th century[edit]
1802 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: teleological evolution
1805 – John Dalton: Atomic Theory in (Chemistry)
1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers that a current passed through a wire will deflect the needle of a compass, establishing a deep relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).
1820 – Michael Faraday and James Stoddard discover alloying iron with chromium produces a stainless steel resistant to oxidising elements (rust).
1821 – Thomas Johann Seebeck is the first to observe a property of semiconductors
1824 – Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine
1824 – Joseph Aspdin develops Portland cement (concrete), by heating ground limestone, clay and gypsum, in a cilm.
1827 – Georg Ohm: Ohm’s law (Electricity)
1827 – Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro’s law (Gas law)
1828 – Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea, refuting vitalism
1830 – Nikolai Lobachevsky created Non-Euclidean geometry
1831 – Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction
1833 – Anselme Payen isolates first enzyme, diastase
1837 – Charles Babbage proposes a design for the construction of a Turing complete, general purpose Computer, to be called the Analytical Engine.
1838 – Matthias Schleiden: all plants are made of cells
1838 – Friedrich Bessel: first successful measure of stellar parallax (to star 61 Cygni)
1842 – Christian Doppler: Doppler effect
1843 – James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy
1846 – Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d’Arrest: discovery of Neptune
.
1847 – George Boole: publishes The Mathematical Analysis of Logic,
defining Boolean algebra; refined in his 1854 The Laws of Thought
.
1848 – Lord Kelvin: absolute zero
1856 – Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, thorough the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel.
1858 – Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells
1859 – Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection
1861 – Louis Pasteur: Germ theory
1861 – John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse Effect
1864 – James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism
1865 – Gregor Mendel: Mendel’s laws of inheritance, basis for genetics
1865 – Rudolf Clausius: Definition of Entropy
1868 – Robert Forester Mushet discovers alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy.
1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table
1871 – Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue
1873 – Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force.
1873 – Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission.
1873 – Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity.
1875 – William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays
1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule
1877 – Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy
1880s – John Hopkinson develops Three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple AC dynamos can be connected in parallel, improves permanent magnets, and dynamo efficiency, by the addition of tungsten, and describes how temperature effects magnetism (Hopkinson effect).
1880 – Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie: Piezoelectricity
1884 – Jacobus Henricus van ‘t Hoff: discovered the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions (in his work “Etudes de dynamique chimique”).
1887 – Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley: lack of evidence for the aether
1888 – Friedrich Reinitzer discovers liquid crystals.
1892 – Dmitri Ivanovsky discovers for the first time a virus
1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays
1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity
1896 – Svante Arrhenius derives the basic principles of the greenhouse effect.
1897 – J.J. Thomson discovers the electron in cathode rays
1898 – Martinus Beijerinck: concluded a virus infectious—replicating in the host—and thus not a mere toxin and gave it the name “virus”
1898 – J.J. Thomson proposed the Plum pudding model of an atom
20th century[edit]
1905 – Albert Einstein: theory of special relativity, explanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect
1906 – Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics
1907 – Alfred Bertheim: Arsphenamine, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent
1909 – Fritz Haber: Haber Process for industrial production of ammonia
1909 – Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron
1910 – Williamina Fleming: the first white dwarf, 40 Eridani B
1911 – Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus
1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: Superconductivity
1912 – Alfred Wegener: Continental drift
1912 – Max von Laue : x-ray diffraction
1912 – Vesto Slipher : galactic redshifts
1912 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt: Cepheid variable period-luminosity relation
1913 – Henry Moseley: defined atomic number
1913 – Niels Bohr: Model of the atom
1915 – Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity – also David Hilbert
1915 – Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes
1918 – Emmy Noether: Noether’s theorem – conditions under which the conservation laws are valid
1920 – Arthur Eddington: Stellar nucleosynthesis
1922 – Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, John Macleod: isolation and production of insulin to control diabetes
1924 – Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle
1924 – Edwin Hubble: the discovery that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies
1925 – Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation (Quantum mechanics)
1925 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: Discovery of the composition of the Sun and that Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe
1927 – Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (Quantum mechanics)
1927 – Georges Lemaître: Theory of the Big Bang
1928 – Paul Dirac: Dirac equation (Quantum mechanics)
1929 – Edwin Hubble: Hubble’s law of the expanding universe
1929 – Alexander Fleming: Penicillin, the first beta-lactam antibiotic
1929 – Lars Onsager’s reciprocal relations, a potential fourth law of thermodynamics
1930 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers his eponymous limit of the maximum mass of a white dwarf star
1931 – Kurt Gödel: incompleteness theorems prove formal axiomatic systems are incomplete
1932 – James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron
1932 – Karl Guthe Jansky discovers the first astronomical radio source, Sagittarius A
1932 – Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft: Nuclear fission by proton bombardment
1934 – Enrico Fermi: Nuclear fission by neutron irradiation
1934 – Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species
1938 – Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann: Nuclear fission of heavy nuclei
1938 – Isidor Rabi: Nuclear magnetic resonance
1943 – Oswald Avery proves that DNA is the genetic material of the chromosome
1945 – Howard Florey Mass production of penicillin
1947 – William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor
1948 – Claude Elwood Shannon: ‘A mathematical theory of communication’ a seminal paper in Information theory.
1948 – Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson: Quantum electrodynamics
1951 – George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa
1952 – Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine
1952 – Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early earth Miller–Urey experiment
1952 – Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids
1953 – James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology
1962 – Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1
1963 – Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis)
.
1964
‘Murray Gell-Mann’
‘George Zweig’
postulates ‘quarks‘
leading to the ‘standard model’
.
1964 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang
1965 – Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit
1967 – Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar
1967 – Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst
1970 – James H. Ellis proposed the possibility of “non-secret encryption”, more commonly termed public-key cryptography, a concept that would be implemented by his GCHQ colleague Clifford Cocks in 1973, in what would become known as the RSA algorithm, with key exchange added by a third colleague Malcolm J. Williamson, in 1975.
1971 – Place cells in the brain are discovered by John O’Keefe
1974 – Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover indirect evidence for gravitational wave radiation in the Hulse–Taylor binary
1977 – Frederick Sanger sequences the first DNA genome of an organism using Sanger sequencing
1980 – Klaus von Klitzing discovered the Quantum Hall Effect.
1982 – Donald C. Backer et al. discover the first millisecond pulsar
1983 – Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology.
1986 – Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity.
1988 – Bart van Wees [nl] and colleagues at TU Deflt and Philips Research discovered the quantized conductance in a two-dimensional electron gas.
1992 – Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail observe the first pulsar planets (this was the first confirmed discovery of planets outside the Solar System)
1994 –
Andrew Wiles proves Fermat’s Last Theorem
1995 –
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz definitively observe the first extrasolar planet around a main sequence star
1995 –
Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle attained the first Bose-Einstein Condensate with atomic gases, so called fifth state of matter at an extremely low temperature.
1996 –
Roslin Institute: Dolly the sheep was cloned.[126]
1997 –
CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab: Top quark.
1998 –
Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team: discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe / Dark Energy.
2000 –
The Tau neutrino is discovered by the DONUT collaboration
.
.
21st century[edit]
2001 –
The first draft of the Human Genome Project is published.
2003 –
Grigori Perelman presents proof of the Poincaré Conjecture.
2004 –
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov isolated graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms, and studied its quantum electrical properties.
2005 –
Grid cells in the brain are discovered by Edvard Moser and May-Britt Moser.
2010 –
The first Self-Replicating, Synthetic Bacterial Cells are Constructed.[127]
2010 –
The Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding did likely take place and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations
2012 –
Higgs boson is discovered at CERN (confirmed to 99.999% certainty)
2012 –
Photonic molecules are discovered at MIT
2014 –
Exotic hadrons are discovered at the LHCb
2015 – Traces of liquid water discovered on Mars[128]
(Since refuted in NASA report from 2017!)[129]
2016 –
The LIGO team detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger.
2017 –
Gravitational wave signal GW170817 was observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration.
This was the first instance of a gravitational wave event that was observed to have a simultaneous electromagnetic signal when space telescopes like Hubble observed lights coming from the event, thereby marking a significant breakthrough for multi-messenger astronomy.
.
*2019*
The first ever image of a ‘black hole’ was captured, using 8 different telescopes taking simultaneous pictures, timed with extremely precise ‘atomic clocks’.
.
.
References
^ Whitelaw, p. 14.
^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 40–41.
^ Rao (July 1992). “A Navigational Instrument of the Harappan Sailors” (PDF). Marine Archaeology. 3: 61–66. Notes: protractor described as “compass” in article.
^ Petruso, Karl M (1981). “Early Weights and Weighing in Egypt and the Indus Valley”. M Bulletin. 79: 44–51. JSTOR 4171634.
^ Jump up to: a b Friberg, Jöran (2009). “A Geometric Algorithm with Solutions to Quadratic Equations in a Sumerian Juridical Document from Ur III Umma”. Cuneiform Digital Library Journal. 3.
^ Maor, Eli (1998). Trigonometric Delights. Princeton University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-691-09541-7.
^ Richard J. Gillings, Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs, Dover, New York, 1982, 161.
^ Jane Qiu (7 January 2014). “Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips”. Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14482.
^ Beery, Janet L.; Swetz, Frank J. (July 2012), “The best known old Babylonian tablet?”, Convergence, Mathematical Association of America, doi:10.4169/loci003889
^ Romano, David Gilman (1993). Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion. American Philosophical Society. p. 78. ISBN 9780871692061. A group of mathematical clay tablets from the Old Babylonian Period, excavated at Susa in 1936, and published by E.M. Bruins in 1950, provide the information that the Babylonian approximation of π was 3 1/8 or 3.125.
^ Bruins, E. M. (1950). “Quelques textes mathématiques de la Mission de Suse” (PDF).
^ Bruins, E. M.; Rutten, M. (1961). Textes mathématiques de Suse. Mémoires de la Mission archéologique en Iran. XXXIV.
^ Imhausen, Annette (2007). Katz, Victor J. (ed.). The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
^ Rossi (2007). Corinna Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69053-9.
^ “Egyptian numerals”. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
^ Stephen Chrisomalis (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. p. 248. ISBN 9780521878180.
^ Lamb, Evelyn (31 August 2014), “Look, Ma, No Zero!”, Scientific American, Roots of Unity
^ Porter, Roy (17 October 1999). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (The Norton History of Science). W. W. Norton. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9780393319804. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
^ Thibaut, George (1875). “On the Śulvasútras”. The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 44: 227–275.
^ Seshadri, Conjeevaram (2010). Seshadri, C. S (ed.). Studies in the History of Indian Mathematics. New Delhi: Hindustan Book Agency. pp. 152–153. doi:10.1007/978-93-86279-49-1. ISBN 978-93-80250-06-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Bhishagratna, Kaviraj KL (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Three Volumes (PDF). Archived from the original on 13 March 1967.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ Patwardhan, Kishor (2012). “The history of the discovery of blood circulation: Unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters”. Advances in Physiology Education. 36 (2): 77–82. doi:10.1152/advan.00123.2011. PMID 22665419.
^ Bhate, S. and Kak, S. (1993) Panini and Computer Science. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol. 72, pp. 79-94.
^ Kadvany, John (2007), “Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion”, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 35 (5–6): 487–520, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.565.2083, doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5.
^ Knopp, Konrad (1951). Theory and Application of Infinite Series (English 2nd ed.). London and Glasgow: Blackie & Son, Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 0-486-66165-2.
^ Ian Stewart (2017). Infinity: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-19-875523-4. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017.
^ Van Nooten, B. (1 March 1993). “Binary numbers in Indian antiquity”. Journal of Indian Philosophy. 21 (1): 31–50. doi:10.1007/BF01092744.
^ Eves, Howard. “Webpage cites AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS”. Mathcentral. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
^ Heath, Thomas L. (1956). The Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements (2nd ed. [Facsimile. Original publication: Cambridge University Press, 1925] ed.). New York: Dover Publications.
^ Ian Bruce (2000) “Napier’s Logarithms”, American Journal of Physics 68(2):148
^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth (Vol. 3), p 24. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
^ Kurt Von Fritz (1945). “The Discovery of Incommensurability by Hippasus of Metapontum”. The Annals of Mathematics.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ James R. Choike (1980). “The Pentagram and the Discovery of an Irrational Number”. The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
^ Singh, Parmanand (1985), “The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India”, Historia Mathematica, 12 (3): 229–44, doi:10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7
^ Knuth, Donald (1968), The Art of Computer Programming, 1, Addison Wesley, p. 100, ISBN 978-81-7758-754-8, Before Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had already been discussed by Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns… both Gopala (before 1135 AD) and Hemachandra (c. 1150) mentioned the numbers 1,2,3,5,8,13,21 explicitly [see P. Singh Historia Math 12 (1985) 229–44]” p. 100 (3d ed)…
^ Ore, Oystein (1988) [1948], Number Theory and its History, Dover, p. 65
^ A. W. F. Edwards. Pascal’s arithmetical triangle: the story of a mathematical idea. JHU Press, 2002. Pages 30–31.
^ Jump up to: a b c Edwards, A. W. F. (2013), “The arithmetical triangle”, in Wilson, Robin; Watkins, John J. (eds.), Combinatorics: Ancient and Modern, Oxford University Press, pp. 166–180
^ Amulya Kumar Bag (6 January 1966). “Binomial theorem in Ancient India” (PDF). Indian J. Hist. Sci.: 68–74.
^ Hoche, Richard, ed. (1866), Nicomachi Geraseni Pythagorei Introductionis arithmeticae libri II, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, p. 31
^ Bold, Benjamin. Famous Problems of Geometry and How to Solve Them, Dover Publications, 1982 (orig. 1969).
^ Boyer (1991). “The age of Plato and Aristotle”. A History of Mathematics. p. 93. It was consequently a signal achievement on the part of Menaechmus when he disclosed that curves having the desired property were near at hand. In fact, there was a family of appropriate curves obtained from a single source – the cutting of a right circular cone by a plane perpendicular to an element of the cone. That is, Menaechmus is reputed to have discovered the curves that were later known as the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola. […] Yet the first discovery of the ellipse seems to have been made by Menaechmus as a mere by-product in a search in which it was the parabola and hyperbola that proffered the properties needed in the solution of the Delian problem.
^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). “The Age of Plato and Aristotle”. A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 94–95. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. Menaechmus apparently derived these properties of the conic sections and others as well. Since this material has a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates, as illustrated above, it has sometimes been maintained that Menaechmus had analytic geometry. Such a judgment is warranted only in part, for certainly Menaechmus was unaware that any equation in two unknown quantities determines a curve. In fact, the general concept of an equation in unknown quantities was alien to Greek thought. It was shortcomings in algebraic notations that, more than anything else, operated against the Greek achievement of a full-fledged coordinate geometry.
^ Jump up to: a b Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). “Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration”. A History of Mathematics. pp. 158–159. Trigonometry, like other branches of mathematics, was not the work of any one man, or nation. Theorems on ratios of the sides of similar triangles had been known to, and used by, the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. In view of the pre-Hellenic lack of the concept of angle measure, such a study might better be called “trilaterometry”, or the measure of three sided polygons (trilaterals), than “trigonometry”, the measure of parts of a triangle. With the Greeks we first find a systematic study of relationships between angles (or arcs) in a circle and the lengths of chords subtending these. Properties of chords, as measures of central and inscribed angles in circles, were familiar to the Greeks of Hippocrates’ day, and it is likely that Eudoxus had used ratios and angle measures in determining the size of the earth and the relative distances of the sun and the moon. In the works of Euclid there is no trigonometry in the strict sense of the word, but there are theorems equivalent to specific trigonometric laws or formulas. Propositions II.12 and 13 of the Elements, for example, are the laws of cosines for obtuse and acute angles respectively, stated in geometric rather than trigonometric language and proved by a method similar to that used by Euclid in connection with the Pythagorean theorem. Theorems on the lengths of chords are essentially applications of the modern law of sines. We have seen that Archimedes’ theorem on the broken chord can readily be translated into trigonometric language analogous to formulas for sines of sums and differences of angles.
^ Archimedes (1912), The method of Archimedes recently discovered by Heiberg; a supplement to the Works of Archimedes, Cambridge University Press
^ Eves, Howard (1963), A Survey of Geometry (Volume One), Boston: Allyn and Bacon
^ Archimedes, The Method of Mechanical Theorems; see Archimedes Palimpsest
^ O’Connor, J.J. & Robertson, E.F. (February 1996). “A history of calculus”. University of St Andrews. Retrieved 7 August 2007.
^ K., Bidwell, James (30 November 1993). “Archimedes and Pi-Revisited”. School Science and Mathematics. 94 (3).
^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). “Archimedes of Syracuse”. A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). Wiley. pp. 127. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8. Greek mathematics sometimes has been described as essentially static, with little regard for the notion of variability; but Archimedes, in his study of the spiral, seems to have found the tangent to a curve through kinematic considerations akin to differential calculus. Thinking of a point on the spiral 1=r = aθ as subjected to a double motion — a uniform radial motion away from the origin of coordinates and a circular motion about the origin — he seems to have found (through the parallelogram of velocities) the direction of motion (hence of the tangent to the curve) by noting the resultant of the two component motions. This appears to be the first instance in which a tangent was found to a curve other than a circle.
Archimedes’ study of the spiral, a curve that he ascribed to his friend Conon of Alexandria, was part of the Greek search for the solution of the three famous problems.
^ Dicks, D.R. (1970). Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 68. ISBN 978-0-8014-0561-7.
^ E. At. Schwanbeck (1877). Ancient India as described by Megasthenês and Arrian; being a translation of the fragments of the Indika of Megasthenês collected by Dr. Schwanbeck, and of the first part of the Indika of Arrian. p. 101.
^ Warmflash, David (20 June 2019). “An Ancient Greek Philosopher Was Exiled for Claiming the Moon Was a Rock, Not a God”. Smithsonian Mag. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
^ Draper, John William (2007) [1874]. “History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science”. In Joshi, S. T. (ed.). The Agnostic Reader. Prometheus. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-1-59102-533-7.
^ Jones, A., Alexander (September 1991). “The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy” (PDF). Isis. 82 (3): 440–453. Bibcode:1991Isis…82..441J. doi:10.1086/355836.
^ Ossendrijver, Mathieu (29 January 2016). “Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter’s position from the area under a time-velocity graph”. Science. 351 (6272): 482–484. Bibcode:2016Sci…351..482O. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085. PMID 26823423.
^ Valleriani, Matteo (3 June 2010). Galileo Engineer. Springer Science and Business Media.
^ Spaide RF, Ohno-Matsui KM, Yannuzzi LA, eds. (2013). Pathologic Myopia. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 2. ISBN 978-1461483380.
^ Mabbett, I. W. (1964). “The Date of the Arthaśāstra”. Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 84 (2): 162–169. doi:10.2307/597102. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 597102.
^ D. Rawlins: “Methods for Measuring the Earth’s Size by Determining the Curvature of the Sea” and “Racking the Stade for Eratosthenes”, appendices to “The Eratosthenes–Strabo Nile Map. Is It the Earliest Surviving Instance of Spherical Cartography? Did It Supply the 5000 Stades Arc for Eratosthenes’ Experiment?”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences, v.26, 211–219, 1982
^ Bowen A.C., Goldstein B.R. (1991). “Hipparchus’ Treatment of Early Greek Astronomy: The Case of Eudoxus and the Length of Daytime Author(s)”. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 135(2): 233–254.
^ Struik, page 32–33. “In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history.”
^ Luke Hodgkin (2005). A History of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity. Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0. Liu is explicit on this; at the point where the Nine Chapters give a detailed and helpful ‘Sign Rule’
^ Jump up to: a b (Boyer 1991, “The Mathematics of the Hindus” p. 207) “He gave more elegant rules for the sum of the squares and cubes of an initial segment of the positive integers. The sixth part of the product of three quantities consisting of the number of terms, the number of terms plus one, and twice the number of terms plus one is the sum of the squares. The square of the sum of the series is the sum of the cubes.”
^ Jump up to: a b Bibhutibhushan Datta and Avadhesh Narayan Singh (1962). History of Hindu Mathematics A source Book Part II. Asia Publishing House. p. 92.
^ Heath, Thomas L. (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics (Vol II). Oxford University Press. pp. 321–323.
^ Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). “Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration”. A History of Mathematics. p. 163. In Book I of this treatise Menelaus establishes a basis for spherical triangles analogous to that of Euclid I for plane triangles. Included is a theorem without Euclidean analogue – that two spherical triangles are congruent if corresponding angles are equal (Menelaus did not distinguish between congruent and symmetric spherical triangles); and the theorem A + B + C > 180° is established. The second book of the Sphaerica describes the application of spherical geometry to astronomical phenomena and is of little mathematical interest. Book III, the last, contains the well known “theorem of Menelaus” as part of what is essentially spherical trigonometry in the typical Greek form – a geometry or trigonometry of chords in a circle. In the circle in Fig. 10.4 we should write that chord AB is twice the sine of half the central angle AOB (multiplied by the radius of the circle). Menelaus and his Greek successors instead referred to AB simply as the chord corresponding to the arc AB. If BOB’ is a diameter of the circle, then chord A’ is twice the cosine of half the angle AOB (multiplied by the radius of the circle).
^ Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
^ Bailey, David; Borwein, Jonathan (2012). “Ancient Indian Square Roots: An Exercise in Forensic Paleo-Mathematics” (PDF). American Mathematical Monthly. 119 (8). pp. 646–657. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
^ 37461 Aryabhata at the Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Parakh, Abhishek (2006). “Aryabhata’s Root Extraction Methods”. arXiv:math/0608793.
^ Kak 1986
^ Cajori, Florian (1928). A History of Elementary Mathematics. Science. 5. The Open Court Company, Publishers. pp. 516–7. doi:10.1126/science.5.117.516. ISBN 978-1-60206-991-6. PMID 17758371. It will be remembered that the scratch method did not spring into existence in the form taught by the writers of the sixteenth century. On the contrary, it is simply the graphical representation of the method employed by the Hindus, who calculated with a coarse pencil on a small dust-covered tablet. The erasing of a figure by the Hindus is here represented by the scratching of a figure.
^ Lay-Yong, Lam (1966). “On the Chinese Origin of the Galley Method of Arithmetical Division”. The British Journal for the History of Science. 3: 66–69. doi:10.1017/S0007087400000200.
^ Kurt Vogel, “Diophantus of Alexandria.” in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Encyclopedia.com, 2008. Quote: The symbolism that Diophantus introduced for the first time, and undoubtedly devised himself, provided a short and readily comprehensible means of expressing an equation… Since an abbreviation is also employed for the word ‘equals’, Diophantus took a fundamental step from verbal algebra towards symbolic algebra.
^ Pearce, Ian (May 2002). “The Bakhshali manuscript”. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
^ Reimer, L., and Reimer, W. Mathematicians Are People, Too: Stories from the Lives of Great Mathematicians, Vol. 2. 1995. pp. 22-22. Parsippany, NJ: Pearson ducation, Inc. as Dale Seymor Publications. ISBN 0-86651-823-1.
^ Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). “Mathematics in Medieval Islam”. In Katz, Victor J. (ed.). The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 530. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
^ Miller, Jeff (22 December 2014). “Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols”. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
^ Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I
^ The concept of Indian heliocentrism has been advocated by B. L. van der Waerden, Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie. Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich. Zürich:Kommissionsverlag Leeman AG, 1970.
^ B.L. van der Waerden, “The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy”, in David A. King and George Saliba, ed., From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies in the History of Science in the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 500 (1987), pp. 529–534.
^ Hugh Thurston (1996). Early Astronomy. Springer. p. 188. ISBN 0-387-94822-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ Noel Swerdlow, “Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy,” Isis, 64 (1973): 239–243.
^ Pasipoularides, Ares (1 March 2014). “Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology”. International Journal of Cardiology. 172 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166. PMID 24461486.
^ Ansari, S.M.R. (March 1977). “Aryabhata I, His Life and His Contributions”. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 5 (1): 10–18. Bibcode:1977BASI….5…10A. hdl:2248/502.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ Henry Thomas Colebrooke. Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahmegupta and Bháscara, London 1817, p. 339 (online)
^ Plofker (2007, pp. 428–434)
^ Tabak, John (2009), Algebra: Sets, Symbols, and the Language of Thought, Infobase Publishing, p. 42, ISBN 978-0-8160-6875-3
^ Jump up to: a b Joseph, G. G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 416 pages, ISBN 978-0-691-00659-8
^ Broemeling, Lyle D. (2011). “An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology”. The American Statistician. 65 (4): 255–257. doi:10.1198/tas.2011.10191.
^ Gupta, R. C. (2000), “History of Mathematics in India”, in Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (eds.), Students’ Britannica India: Select essays, Popular Prakashan, p. 329
^ Kusuba 2004, pp. 497–516
^ Jump up to: a b Kelley, David H. & Milone, Eugene F. (2011). Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy (2nd ed.). Springer Science+Business Media. p. 293. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7624-6. ISBN 978-1-4419-7624-6. OCLC 710113366.
^ Morris R. Cohen and I. E. Drabkin (eds. 1958), A Source Book in Greek Science (p. 220), with several changes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, as referenced by David C. Lindberg (1992), The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450, University of Chicago Press, p. 305, ISBN 0-226-48231-6
Note the influence of Philoponus’ statement on Galileo’s Two New Sciences (1638)
^ http://spie.org/etop/2007/etop07fundamentalsII.pdf,” R. Rashed credited Ibn Sahl with discovering the law of refraction [23], usually called Snell’s law and also Snell and Descartes’ law.”
^ Smith, A. Mark (2015). From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics. University of Chicago Press. p. 178. ISBN 9780226174761.
^ Bina Chatterjee (introduction by), The Khandakhadyaka of Brahmagupta, Motilal Banarsidass (1970), p. 13
^ Lallanji Gopal, History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D., Concept Publishing Company (2008), p. 603
^ Kosla Vepa, Astronomical Dating of Events & Select Vignettes from Indian History, Indic Studies Foundation (2008), p. 372
^ Dwijendra Narayan Jha (edited by), The feudal order: state, society, and ideology in early medieval India, Manohar Publishers & Distributors (2000), p. 276
^ Katz (1998), p. 255
^ Florian Cajori (1918), Origin of the Name “Mathematical Induction”, The American Mathematical Monthly 25 (5), p. 197-201.
^ Radha Charan Gupta (1977) “Parameshvara’s rule for the circumradius of a cyclic quadrilateral”, Historia Mathematica 4: 67–74
^ Jump up to: a b (Katz 1995)
^ J J O’Connor and E F Robertson (2000). “Madhava of Sangamagramma”. MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from the original on 14 May 2006. Retrieved 8 September 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Ian G. Pearce (2002). Madhava of Sangamagramma. MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews.
^ Roy 1990, pp. 101–102
^ Brink, David (2015). “Nilakantha’s accelerated series for π”. Acta Arithmetica. 171 (4): 293–308. doi:10.4064/aa171-4-1.
^ Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M. D.; Sriram, M. S. (1994). “Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion”. Current Science. 66: 784–790.
^ Crombie, Alistair Cameron, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
^ Pines, Shlomo (1970). “Abu’l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah”. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. pp. 26–28. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). “Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory”, Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].)
^ “The invention of spectacles”. The College of Optometrists. The College of Optometrists. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
^ Mochrie, Robert (2005). Justice in Exchange: The Economic Philosophy of John Duns Scotus
^ “Robert Grosseteste”. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Stanford.edu. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
^ Kline, Morris. A history of mathematical thought, volume 1. p. 253.
^ Katz, Victor J. (2004), “9.1.4”, A History of Mathematics, Brief Version, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-16193-2
^ Burton, David. The History of Mathematics: An Introduction (7th (2010) ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
^ Bruno, Leonard C (2003) [1999]. Math and mathematicians: the history of math discoveries around the world. Baker, Lawrence W. Detroit, Mich.: U X L. p. 60. ISBN 0787638137. OCLC 41497065.
^ Westfall, Richard S. “Cardano, Girolamo”. The Galileo Project. rice.edu. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
^ Beckmann, Petr (1971). A history of π (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: The Golem Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-88029-418-8. MR 0449960.
^ Jourdain, Philip E. B. (1913). The Nature of Mathematics.
^ Robert Recorde, The Whetstone of Witte (London, England: John Kyngstone, 1557), p. 236 (although the pages of this book are not numbered). From the chapter titled “The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule” (p. 236): “Howbeit, for easie alteration of equations. I will propounde a fewe examples, bicause the extraction of their rootes, maie the more aptly bee wroughte. And to avoide the tediouse repetition of these woordes: is equalle to: I will sette as I doe often in worke use, a paire of paralleles, or Gemowe [twin, from gemew, from the French gemeau (twin / twins), from the Latin gemellus (little twin)] lines of one lengthe, thus: = , bicause noe .2. thynges, can be moare equalle.” (However, for easy manipulation of equations, I will present a few examples in order that the extraction of roots may be more readily done. And to avoid the tedious repetition of these words “is equal to”, I will substitute, as I often do when working, a pair of parallels or twin lines of the same length, thus: = , because no two things can be more equal.)
^ Volckart, Oliver (1997). “Early beginnings of the quantity theory of money and their context in Polish and Prussian monetary policies, c. 1520–1550”. The Economic History Review. Wiley-Blackwell. 50 (3): 430–49. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00063. ISSN 0013-0117. JSTOR 2599810.
^ “John Napier and logarithms”. Ualr.edu. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
^ “The Roslin Institute (University of Edinburgh) – Public Interest: Dolly the Sheep”. www.roslin.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
^ “JCVI: First Self-Replicating, Synthetic Bacterial Cell Constructed by J. Craig Venter Institute Researchers”. jcvi.org. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^ Anderson, Gina (28 September 2015). “NASA Confirms Evidence That Liquid Water Flows on Today’s Mars”. NASA. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
^ “Recurring Martian Streaks: Flowing Sand, Not Water?”. 21 November 2017
^ Landau, Elizabeth; Chou, Felicia; Washington, Dewayne; Porter, Molly (16 October 2017). “NASA Missions Catch First Light from a Gravitational-Wave Event”. NASA. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
^ “Neutron star discovery marks breakthrough for ‘multi-messenger astronomy'”. csmonitor.com. 16 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
^ “Hubble makes milestone observation of gravitational-wave source”. slashgear.com. 16 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
.
*external links*
Science Timeline
en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
Timeline of scientific discoveries
Wikipedia
62-79 minutes
.
.
👈👈👈☜*“UNSOLVED MYSTERIES”* ☞ 👉👉👉
*PHYSICS*
.
.
💕💝💖💓🖤💙🖤💙🖤💙🖤❤️💚💛🧡❣️💞💔💘❣️🧡💛💚❤️🖤💜🖤💙🖤💙🖤💗💖💝💘
.
.
*🌈✨ *TABLE OF CONTENTS* ✨🌷*
.
.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥*we won the war* 🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥