.
-70 EMPERORS-
-503 YEARS–
-[27 BCE] – [476 CE]-
(for an average reign of ~7 years)
.
“PROTO-EMPEROR” —>
(“DICTATOR”)
-[100 BCE] – [44 BCE]-
.
-caesar’s wife was [cornelia]-
-born [97 BCE]-
.
-[julia] was the daughter of [caesar]-
-[76 BCE] – [54 BCE]-
.
-caesar was murdered in [44 BCE]-
-age 55-
.
*SISTER* —>
“JULIA MINOR”
(OLDER SISTER)
(HOW MUCH OLDER?)
(SHE MUST HAVE BEEN BORN BEFORE [100 BCE])
.
-SHE MARRIED [MARCUS ATIUS BALBUS]-
-[105 BCE] – [51 BCE]-
-HE DIED @ [AGE 54]-
.
-SHE ALSO DIED IN [51 BCE]-
-AGE 50-
-CAESAR WAS [49]-
.
-ATIA-
-DAUGHTER OF [JULIA MINOR] + [MARCUS ATIUS BALBUS]-
-CAESAR’S NIECE-
-[85 BCE] – [43 BCE]-
-HER PARENTS WERE TEENAGERS-
-SHE MARRIED [GAIUS OCTAVIUS]-
-[100 BCE] – [59 BCE]-
(15 YEARS OLDER THAN “ATIA”)
-HE DIED @ [AGE 41]-
.
-OCTAVIAN-
(LATER “AUGUSTUS”)
(maternal great-nephew of ‘julius caesar’)
(caesar’s sister’s daughter’s son was “augustus”)
(augustus’s mother’s mother’s brother was “caesar”)
.
-[CAESAR] WAS 37 YEARS OLDER THAN [AUGUSTUS]-
-HE NAMED HIM HIS [HEIR] IN HIS [WILL]-
-WHICH WAS WRITTEN IN [45 BCE]-
-A YEAR BEFORE HIS MURDER-
-AUGUSTUS WAS [18]-
-[MILITARY TRAINING] IN [APOLLONIA]-
(MODERN DAY [ALBANIA])
-RETURNS TO ROME + MEETS [MARK ANTONY]-
-[MARK ANTONY] DELIVERS INFLAMMATORY FUNERAL ELEGY FOR CAESARS THAT FORCES THE ASSASSINS TO FLEE THE CITY WITH PUBLIC OPINION MOUNTING AGAINST THEM-
.
Following the assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, there was initially a settlement reached between the perpetrators, who styled themselves liberatores, and remaining Caesarian supporters.
This settlement included an amnesty for the tyrannicides, confirmation of Caesar’s official actions, and abolition of the dictatorship
By late spring 44 BC, the provinces assigned by Caesar before his death – many to his later killers – were largely confirmed
Mark Antony was one of the consuls for 44 BC and on 2 June 44 BC, was able to push through illegal legislation assigning to himself the provinces of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, displacing their existing governors.
These governorships secured for Antony a political future where he would be able to intimidate the senate and Italy from across the river Rubicon
Antony also persuaded the senate to disarm Marcus Brutus and Cassius (the two leading tyrannicides) giving them grain supply assignments
both men viewed these assignments as insults, later compounded by their assignment to minor provinces after their praetorships
Relations between Antony and Caesar’s legal heir, Octavian, also started to break down:
Octavian was successful in attracting some of Caesar’s veterans from Antony’s camp, undercutting Antony’s military support
Antony also sought later in the year to isolate Cicero politically, as the eloquent ex-consul was prestigious and on friendly terms with large portions of the aristocracy
Octavian, starting a bidding war for extreme Caesarians, broke with Antony and formed for himself a private army
In December 44 BC, Cicero induced the senate to honour Octavian’s efforts and to support the existing governors of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in retaining their provinces against Antony.
The senate’s forces, led by the two consuls and Octavian, put Antony to flight at the Battle of Mutina on 21 April 43 BC
After news of the victory, Cicero had the senate declare Antony a public enemy.
But with both consuls dead, Octavian moved against the senate – both sides knew they were only using the other – and marched south to secure for himself the consulships opened by their deaths
.
-FORMED ON [27 NOVEMBER [43 BCE]]-
-[5-YEAR] TERM-
-IT WAS RENEWED IN [37 BCE] FOR ANOTHER [5 YEARS]-
-IT EXPIRED IN [32 BCE]-
-[MARK ANTONY] HAD WRITTEN TO THE [SENATE] ASKING NOT TO BE APPOINTED-
-HE WANTED THE SENATE TO BELIEVE THAT HE TOO WAS COMMITTED TO CHECKING OCTAVIAN’S POWER-
(BECAUsE HE FIGURED THAT OCTAVIAN WOULD NOT ALSO REFUSE THE APPOINTMENT)
(WHICH HE COULD USE AS EVIDENCE OF HIS “POWER HUNGER”)
-THE [TRI-UMVIRATE] WAS NOT RENEWED-
-BOTH CONSULS SIDED WITH [MARK ANTONY]-
-THE [SENATE] HAD [600 SENATORS]-
-[400] FOR [OCTAVIAN]-
-[200] FOR [MARK ANTONY]-
.
-[MARK ANTONY] HAD BEEN MARRIED TO OCTAVIAN’S OLDER SISTER [OCTAVIA (THE YOUNGER)]-
-[69 BCE] – [11 BCE]-
-DIED @ [AGE 58]-
–[OCTAVIAN] MARRIED HER OFF TO [MARK ANTONY] in [40 BCE]-
-SHE WAS [29] / HE WAS [43]-
-THIS WAS HER [2ND MARRIAGE]-
-THIS WAS HIS [4TH MARRIAGE]-
-OCTAVIAN STRATEGICALLY ARRANGED THE MARRIAGE FOR “POLITICAL PURPOSES”-
(JUST AS [CAESAR] MARRIED OFF HIS ONLY CHLD “JULIA” TO [POMPEY])
.
-THEY WERE BOTH AWAY FROM [ROME] WHEN THE [TRI-UMVIRATE] WAS FORMALY DISSOLVED IN THE [SENATE]-
-IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF [ITALY/GREECE] PREPARING TO BATTLE EACH OTHER-
-MARK ANTONY IMMEDIATELY DIVORCED [OCTAVIA]-
-HE MET WITH HIS MISTRESS [CLEOPATRA] IN GREECE-
-[OCTAVIAN] USED THIS FACT TO CONVINCE THE [SENATE] THAT [MARK ANTONY] WAS MERELY AN AGENT OF [CLEOPATRA]-
-THIS GOT THEM FIRED UP-
-THEY IMMEDIATELY REVOKED ANTONY’S “CONSULSHIP” WHICH WAS SET FOR [31 BCE]-
-WAR WAS DECLARED AGAINST [CLEOPATRA]-
(WHICH WAS UNDERSTOOD AS A WAR AGAINST [MARK ANTONY] AS WELL)
.
The Roman Senate was actively against Cleopatra primarily because of Octavian’s extensive propaganda campaign, which successfully painted her as a dangerous, foreign monarch who posed an existential threat to the Roman Republic.
The pivotal moment that led to a formal declaration of war was not simply Octavia mentioning Cleopatra, but Octavian’s dramatic and illegal public reading of Mark Antony’s will to the Senate in 32 BCE
The core reasons for the Roman Senate’s hostility and the subsequent declaration of war were:
Political Rivalry: The conflict was fundamentally a power struggle between Octavian (Julius Caesar’s adopted son and heir) and Mark Antony (Caesar’s former ally and a powerful general) for sole control of Rome. Octavian could not declare war on a fellow Roman triumvir without risking a mutiny or alienating a large segment of the Roman populace, so he targeted Cleopatra instead.
Propaganda: Octavian launched a highly effective propaganda war, portraying Antony as Cleopatra’s “love slave” who had abandoned his Roman duty for a decadent, “Eastern” lifestyle. He emphasized Roman xenophobia and misogyny, contrasting the foreign queen with his own “staunch Roman matron” sister, Octavia.
The Will’s Contents: Octavian illegally seized Antony’s will from the Temple of Vesta and read its contents to the Senate. The will confirmed Roman fears by stating that: • Antony recognized Caesarion (Cleopatra’s son by Julius Caesar) as Caesar’s legal heir, directly threatening Octavian’s own claim.
• Antony left large gifts and Roman-controlled territories to his children with Cleopatra, to be ruled as client kingdoms from Alexandria.
• Antony wished to be buried with Cleopatra in Alexandria, not in Rome, which was seen as an ultimate abandonment of his Roman identity.
Roman Sentiment: The Romans were already scandalized that Antony had divorced Octavia to formally marry the foreign queen. The revelations in the will served as “definitive proof” that Antony intended to establish a rival monarchy in Alexandria and deliver the Roman Empire into “alien hands”. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
By declaring war specifically on Cleopatra in 32 BCE, the Senate allowed Octavian to frame the conflict as a patriotic defense of Roman values against a foreign enemy, rather than another bloody Roman civil war. This forced Antony’s hand; he supported Cleopatra and was subsequently declared an outlaw and a traitor by the Senate. [1, 10, 11, 12, 13]
AI responses may include mistakes.
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Actium
[2] https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Cleopatra-declare-war-on-Rome
[3] https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Cleopatra-declare-war-on-Rome
[4] https://kids.kiddle.co/War_of_Actium
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Cleopatra
[6] https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2022/03/historian-delves-battle-shaped-roman-empire
[7] https://egyptianmuseum.org/explore/greco-and-roman-period-rulers-cleopatra-vii
[8] https://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/cleopatra.html
[9] https://www.quora.com/Why-was-Cleopatra-a-threat-to-the-Roman-Empire
[10] https://kids.kiddle.co/War_of_Actium
[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Actium
[12] https://social.vcoins.com/twih/the-second-triumvirate-was-formed-november-26-43-bc-r458/
[13] https://www.historicalconquest.com/single-post/7-lesson-plans-for-ancient-rome-the-second-triumvirate
.
-2 SEPTEMBER [31 BCE]-
-[MARK ANTONY] + [CLEOPATRA] WERE PREPARING TO FLEE FROM [GREECE] BACK TO [ALEXANDRIA]-
-TO PREVENT THEM FROM ESCAPING, OCTAVIAN ORDERED A [NAVAL FLEET] TO MOVE AGAINST THEM-
-THEY STARTED SURROUNDING ANTONY’S FLEET NEAR [ACTIUM]-
-SO ANTONY HAD NO CHOICE BUT TO ATTACK-
-THEY BATTLED IN THE “GULF OF ACTIUM”-
-ANTONY’S FLEET WAS ROUNDLY DEFEATED-
-BUT HE + [CLEOPATRA] WERE ABLE TO ESCAPE TO [EGYPT]-
-IN A ACT OF COWARDICE, THEY ABANDONED THEIR FLEET TO SAVE THEMSELVES-
-OCTAVIA’S ARMY LANDED AND OCCUPIED ANTONY’S CAMP-
-THE WAR WAS OVER-
-SOME OF OCTAVIAN’S FLEET PURSUED [MARK ANTONY]-
-BUT [OCTAVIAN] RETIRED TO [SAMOS] IN THE [WINTER]-
-CLEOPATRA REACHED OUT TO HIM + OFFERED TO ABDICATE HER [EGYPTIAN THRONE] IN FAVOR OF HER SONS-
-SHE ALSO OFFERED HIM A [GOLD CROWN] + [THRONE]-
-OCTAVIA CONVINCED HER THAT SHE WOULD BE WELL-RECEIVED IN ROME, BUT HE REALLY WANTED TO USE HER LIKE A TROPHY DURING HIS “TRIUMPH”-
-[MARK ANTONY] TRIED RAISING TROOPS IN [GREECE] TO NO AVAIL-
-HE SENT HIS ELDEST SON TO MEET WITH [OCTAVIA]–
-OCTAVIA WAS OFFERED MONEY-
-“MARK ANTONY” OFFERED TO LIVE OUT HIS DAYS AS A “PRIVATE CITIZEN” IN [ATHENS]-
-[CORNELIUS GALLUS] WAS APPOINTED BY [OCTAVIAN] AS ROMAN PREFECT OF [EGYPT]-
-NOW HE TOO WAS BATTLING [MARK ANTONY]-
-AS ANTONY’S TROOPS CONTINUED TO DESERT HIM-
-ANTONY GOT OVER-AGGRESSIVE AGAINST OCTAVIAN’S TROOPS + WON SOME MINOR VICTORIES-
-WHICH ENCOURAGED HIM TO BE EVEN MORE AGGRESSIVE-
-WHICH LED TO HIS FINAL DEFEAT IN [ALEXANDRIA]-
-1 AUGUST [30 BCE]-
-HE AGAIN ATTEMPTED TO ABANDON HIS TROOPS + ESCAPE BY SHIP-
-SO HE STABBED HIMSELF IN THE STOMACH-
(AFTER HEARING FALSE RUMOR OF CLEOPATRA’S SUICIDE)
(THE “FALSE RUMOR” WAS SPREAD BY CLEOPATRA HERSELF TO PREVENT OCTAVIAN FROM HUNTING HER DOWN)
-[MARK ANTONY] THEN LEARNED THAT [CLEOPATRA] WAS STILL ALIVE-
-HE DIED LATER THAT DAY IN CLEOPATRA’S MAUSOLEUM-
-SHE WAS “HIDING OUT” HERE-
-AND HE DIED IN HER ARMS-
-AGE 53-
-CLEOPATRA WAS THEN ROUNDED UP + TAKEN TO OCTAVIAN’S PALACE-
-SHE PLEADED FOR MERCY-
(TO NO AVAIL)
-SHE KILLED HERSELF ON [12 AUGUST [30 BCE]]-
-BY ALLOWING AN “ASP” TO BITE HER?-
-SHE DIED @ [AGE 39]-
-HER SON [CAESARION] WAS EXECUTED LATER THAT MONTH-
-MARK ANTONY’S SON [MARCUS ANTONIUS ANTYLLUS] WAS ALSO EXECUTED-
-AGE 17-
-23 AUGUST [30 BCE]-
(HIS MOTHER WAS “FULVIA”)
-[MARK ANTONY] + [CLEOPATRA] WERE GIVEN [PUBLIC MILITARY FUNERALS]-
-BECAUSE [OCTAVIAN] STILL RESPECTED THEM-
-JUST AS [CAESAR] RESPECTED [POMPEY]-
.
-[OCTAVIAN] BECOMES [AUGUSTUS]-
“1ST CITIZEN OF ROME”
-HE TAKES OVER [EGYPT] + TURNS IT INTO A [ROMAN PROVINCE]-
-ENDING THE [PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY]-
.
-[27 BCE]-
-[AUGUSTUS] OFFICIALLY GRANTS POWER BACK TO [SENATE]-
-IN RETURN FOR THIS “HUMBLE GESTURE”, THE SENATORS GANTED HIM MORE POWER-
.
#1
-[63 BCE] – [14 CE]-
-DIED @ [AGE 75]-
.
*REIGN* —>
-[27 BCE] – [14 CE]-
-OVER [40 YEARS]-
-STARTING @ [AGE 36]-
.
*WIFE #1* —>
-CLAUDIA-
-[57 BCE] – [???]-
-[STEP-DAUGHTER] OF [MARK ANTONY]-
(they really like passin’ em around, don’t they?)
(did he too “schtup her”?)
(i bet he did!)
-THEY MARRIED IN [43 BCE]-
-SHE WAS [14] / HE WAS [20]-
-A POLITICAL ALLIANCE-
-SHORTLY AFTER FORMATION OF [2ND TRI-UMVIRATE]-
-CHILDLESS [3-YEAR] MARRIAGE-
-[AUGUSTUS] DIVORCED HER IN [40 BCE]-
-SHE WAS [17] / HE WAS [23]-
-HE DIVORCED [CLAUDIA] TO MARRY [SCRIBONIA]-
.
*WIFE #2* —>
-SCRIBONIA-
-[70 BCE] – [16 CE]-
-DIED @ [AGE 85]-
-SHE WAS FORCED TO DIVORCE HER [2ND HUSBAND] + MARRY [OCTAVIAN] IN [40 BCE]-
-SHE WAS [30] / HE WAS [23]-
-SHE WAS 7 YEARS OLDER THAN [OCTAVIAN]-
-BECAUSE [AUGUSTUS] WANTED TO FORM AN ALLIANCE WITH “SEXTUS POMPEY”-
(WHO WAS RELATED TO “SCRIBONIA”)
(HE ALSO MARRIED HER)
(???)
-[67 BCE] – [35 BCE]-
-HE WAS THE SON OF [POMPEY THE GREAT]-
-HE WAS [27] WHEN [OCTAVIAN] MARRIED [SCRIBONIA] IN [40 BCE]-
(4 YEARS OLDER THAN [OCTAVIAN])
-HE HAD TAKEN UP HIS FATHER’S CAUSE + OPPOSED [CAESAR]-
-HE WAS ALSO THE FINAL [OPPOSING FORCE] OF THE [2ND TRI-UMVIRATE]-
-WHICH WAS FORMED IN [43 BCE]-
-THE [2ND TRI-UMVERIATE] STATED GOAL WAS TO AVENGE [CAESAR]-
-WHICH ALIENATED [SEXTUS POPMEY] WHO SOUGHT TO AVENGE HIS OWN FATHER’S DEATH-
-[CASSIUS] + “THE BRUTUSES” REMAINED THE 1ST PRIORITY OF THE [2ND TRI-UMVIRATE]-
(THEY WERE THE SENATORS WHO MASTERMINDED CAESAR’S MURDER)
-[SEXTUS POMPEY] DID NOT RETURN TO ROME-
-INSTEAD HE REMAINED IN [SICILY} WHERE HE RECEIVED MANY ALLIES SEEKING PROTECTION FROM OCTAVIAN’S PROSCRIPTIONS-
.
-BATTLE OF PHILIPPI-
“fil LIP eee”
-IN [MODERN GREECE]-
-3 OCTOBER [42 BCE]-
.
-[OCTAVIAN] FACES OFF AGAINST [MARCUS BRUTUS]-
-[MARK ANTONY] FACES OFF AGAINST [CASSIUS]-
.
-[MARCUS BRUTUS] DEFEATED [OCTAVIAN]-
-[MARK ANTONY] DEFEATED [CASSIUS]-
(CASSIUS THOUGHT “MARCUS BRUTUS” HAD ALSO BEEN DEFEATED AND SO HE KILLED HIMSELF)
-[MARCUS BRUTUS] GATHERED CASSIUS’S REMAINING TROOPS + BATTLED BOTH [OCTAVIAN] + [MARK ANTONY]-
.
-23 OCTOBER [42 BCE]-
-MARCUS BRUTUS’S TROOPS ARE DECIMATED-
.
-THE SURVIVORS FROM THE [BRUTUS/CASSIUS] CAMPS JOIN [SEXTUS POMPEY] IN [SICILY]-
.
-THE [2ND TRI-UMVIRATE] RE-DIRECTED THEIR [MILITARY FOCUS] TOWARDS [SICILY]-
-[SEXTUS POMPEY] WARMLY RECEIVED [JULIA] IN [SICILY]-
-[JULIA] WAS MARK ANTONY’S MOTHER-
-[104 BCE] – [39 BCE]-
-MEANING SHE WAS [62]-
-HE RETURNED HER SAFELY TO THE EAST-
-WHICH INGRATIATED HIMSELF WITH [MARK ANTONY]-
(THEY AGREED THAT IF ANY CONFLICT SHOULD BREAK OUT, THEY WOULD STAND UNITED AGAINST “OCTAVIAN”)
-[OCTAVIAN] ALSO MADE OVERTURES TOWARDS [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-HE MARRIED [SCRIBONIA] IN [40 BCE]-
(A RELATIVE OF “SEXTUS POMPEY”)
-THERE CONTINUED TO BE [MILITARY SKIRMISHES] BETWEEN [2ND TRI-UMVIRATE] + [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-IN [40 BCE], MENAS CAPTURED [SARDINIA]-
-“MENAS” WAS A [MILITARY LEADER] UNDER [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-IN [39 BCE], A PEACE WAS AGREED UPON-
“PACT OF MISENUM”
-[SEXTUS POMPEY] WAS GRANTED COMPLETE CONTROL OVER [SICILY]-
-IN RETURN, HE AGREED TO KEEP OPEN THE “GRAIN SUPPLY” TO ROME-
-HE ALSO AGREED TO “KEEP THE PIRATES IN CHECK”-
(PROTO-MAFIOSOS?)
-THEY WANTED TO “SECURE THE WEST” AS THEY PREPARED TO HEAD EAST TO WAGE WAR ON THE [PARTHIAN EMPIRE]-
-AS [MARK ANTHONY] HEADED THE [EASTERN LEGIONS], [OCTAVIAN] CONTINUED TO SPAR WITH [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-THEY ACCUSED ONE ANOTHER OF VIOLATING THE “PACT OF MISENUM”-
.
-SCRIBONIA BORE “JULIA THE ELDER” ON [30 OCTOBER [39 BCE]]-
-[SCRIBONIA] WAS [31]-
-[OCTAVIAN] WAS [24]-
-“JULIA THE ELDER” WAS OCTAVIAN’S ONLY “BIOLOGICAL CHILD”-
-HE DIVORCED [SCRIBONIA] ON THE DAY OF JULIA’S BIRTH-
“what a swell guy!”
.
*WIFE #3* —>
-LIVIA-
-[30 JANUARY [59 BCE]] – [29 CE]-
-[OCTAVIAN] MARRIED [LIVIA] IN [38 BCE]-
-SHE WAS [21] / HE WAS [25]-
.
-IN [38 BCE], [MENAS] DEFECTED TO [OCTAVIAN] + GAVE HIM BACK [SARDINIA]-
-IN [37 BCE]. [SEXTUS POMPEY] DEFEATED [OCTAVIAN] IN [BATTLE OF MESSINA]-
-IN [36 BCE]. [MENAS] RETURNED TO [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-[SEXTUS POMPEY] TOOK HIM BACK BUT REMAINED SUSPICIOUS-
-[OCTAVIAN] CALLED ON 2 [ROMAN GENERALS] TO HELP HIM DEFEAT [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-[AGRIPPA] + [TAURUS]-
-[LEPIDUS] ALSO RAISED [14 LEGIONS] TO BATTLE [SEXTUS POMPEY]-
-IN [36 BCE]. [AGRIPPA] DEFEATED [SEXTUS POMPEY] IN “MYLAE”-
(IN GREECE)
(HE ALSO WON A [FOLLOW-UP] BATTLE A MONTH LATER)
-[LEPIDUS] + [TAURUS] INVADED [SICILY]-
.
“BATTLE OF NAULOCHUS”
(IN SICILY)
-3 SEPTEMBER [36 BCE]-
-[AGRIPPA] DESTROYS REMAINDER OF SEXTUS POMPEY’S FLEET-
.
-[SEXTUS POMPEY] FLEES TO [ASIA MINOR]-
(MODERN “TURKEY”)
(HAVING LOST ALL OF HIS [MILITARY SUPPORT])
.
-IN [35 BCE], [SEXTUS POMPEY] WAS CAPTURED IN [MILETUS]-
(IN MODERN “TURKEY”)
.
(HE WAS CAPTURED BY “MARCUS TITIUS”)
(WHOM “SEXTUS POMPEY” HAD EARLIER SPARED THE LIVE OF)
(HE WAS EXECUTED WITHOUT A TRIAL)
-AGE 32-
.
-IN [35 BCE], [MENAS] WAS KILLED IN THE “ILLYRIAN CAMPAIGN”-
.
-[AUGUSTUS] BECOMES 1ST [EMPEROR] OF [ROME] IN [27 BCE]-
.
-AUGUST DIED ON [19 AUGUST [14 CE]]-
-IN THE ITALIAN CITY OF “NOLA”-
-WHERE HIS FATHER HAD DIED-
-HE WAS [75]-
.
#2
-[42 BCE] – [37 CE]-
-SON OF [LIVIA]-
-STEPSON OF [AUGUSTUS]-
.
*REIGN* —>
-[YEAR 14] – [YEAR 37]-
-A [23-YEAR] REIGN-
-BECAME [EMPEROR] @ [AGE 56]-
-DIED @ [AGE 77]-
.
#3
(37 – 41)
.
#4
(41 – 54)
********************************************************************
#5
(54 – 68)
********************************************************************
#6 / #7 / #8 / #9
*YEAR OF THE 4 EMPERORS*
*YEAR 69*
********************************************************************
#10
(79 – 81)
********************************************************************
#11
(81 – 96)
********************************************************************
#12
(96 – 98)
********************************************************************
#13
(98 – 117)
(died at ‘age 53’)
********************************************************************
#14
(117 – 138)
(he married trajan’s grandniece “vibia sabina”)
(and his father was a maternal cousin of “trajan”)
(and he was supposedly ‘adopted’ by ‘trajan’ prior to his death)
(at least according to trajan’s wife ‘plotina’)
********************************************************************
#15
(138 – 161)
(adopted son of “hadrian”)
********************************************************************
#16
(co-emperor)
(161 – 169)
(adopted grandson of “hadrian”)
(adopted son of “antoninus pius”)
********************************************************************
#17
(co-emperor until 169)
(161 – 180)
(adopted son of “antoninus pius”)
********************************************************************
#18
“COMMODUS”
(co-emperor until 180)
(177 – 192)
********************************************************************
#19
“PERTINAX”
(193)
********************************************************************
#20
“DIDIUS JULIANUS”
(193)
********************************************************************
#21
“SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS”
(193 – 211)
(co-emperor from 198 – 211 with ‘caracalla’)
********************************************************************
#22
“GETA”
(co-emperor from 209 – 211 with father and older brother)
********************************************************************
#23
“CARACALLA”
(198 – 217)
(co-emperor from 198 – 211 with ‘septimius severus’)
(co-emperor from 209 – 211 with ‘geta’)
********************************************************************
#24
(217 – 218)
********************************************************************
#25
(218 – 222)
********************************************************************
#26
“SEVERUS ALEXANDER”
(222 – 235)
********************************************************************
#27
“MAXIMINUS THRAX”
(235 – 238)
********************************************************************
#28 / #29 / #30 / #31 / #32 / #33
*YEAR OF THE 6 EMPERORS*
*YEAR 238*
********************************************************************
#34
“GORDIAN III”
(238 – 244)
********************************************************************
#35
“PHILIP THE ARAB”
(244 – 249)
********************************************************************
#36
“DECIUS”
(249 – 251)
(co-emperor with “herennius etruscus”)
********************************************************************
#37
“HERENNIUS ETRUSCUS”
(251)
(co-emperor with “decius”)
********************************************************************
#38
“TREBONIANUS GALLUS”
(co-emperor with “hostilian” in 251)
(co-emperor with “volusianus” from 251 – 253)
********************************************************************
#39
“HOSTILIAN”
(co-emperor with “trebonianus gallus” in ‘251’)
********************************************************************
#40
“VOLUSIANUS”
(co-emperor with “trebonianus gallus” from ‘251’ – ‘253’)
********************************************************************
#41
“AEMILIANUS”
(253)
********************************************************************
#42
“VALERIAN”
(co-emperor with “gallienus” from 253 – 260)
********************************************************************
#43
“GALLIENUS”
(co-emperor with “valerian” from 253 – 260)
(co-emperor with “saloninus” in 260)
(sole emperor from 260 – 268)
********************************************************************
#44
“CLAUDIUS II”
(268 – 270)
********************************************************************
#45
“QUINTILLUS”
(270)
********************************************************************
#46
(270 – 275)
********************************************************************
#47
“TACITUS”
(275 – 276)
********************************************************************
#48
“FLORIANUS”
(276)
********************************************************************
#49
“PROBUS”
(276 – 282)
********************************************************************
#50
“CARUS”
(282 – 283)
********************************************************************
#51
“CARINUS”
(as “caesar of the west” under “carus” from 282 – 283)
(as “co-emperor” with “carus” in 283)
(as “co-emperor” with “numerian” from 283 – 284)
(in competition with “diocletan” from 284 – 285)
********************************************************************
#52
“DIOCLETIAN”
(in competition with “carinus” from 284 – 285)
(as sole emperor from 285 – 286)
(as “augustus of the east” from 286 – 305)
(with “maximian” as “augustus of the west”)
********************************************************************
#53
(as “caesar” with “maximian” from 293 – 305)
(as “augustus in the west” from 305 – 306)
(with “galerius” as “augustus in the east”)
********************************************************************
#54
(as “caesar in the west” under “constantius chlorus” from 305 – 306)
(as “augustus in the west” in competition with ‘constantine’, ‘maxentius’, and ‘maximian’ from 306 – 307)
********************************************************************
#55
“MAXIMIAN”
(as “caesar” under “diocletian” from 285 – 286)
(as “augustus of the west” from 286 – 305)
(with “diocletian” as “augustus of the east”)
(from 306 – 308 he declared himself “augustus”)
(in 310 he declared himself “augustus” AGAIN)
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#56
“MAXENTIUS”
(‘306’ – ‘308’)
(???)
(from 306 to 312 in competition with ‘severus’ / ‘galerius’ / ‘constantine’)
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#57
(306 – 337)
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#58
“CONSTANTINE II”
(as “caesar of the west” under his father constantine I from 317 – 337)
(as co-emperor with brothers “constantius II” and “constans” from 337 – 340)
(finally defeated by “constans”)
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#59
“CONSTANS”
(as “co-emperor” with his brothers from 337 – 350)
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#60
(“usurper of the roman empire”)
(350)
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#61
(as “caesar” under his father constantine I from 324 – 337)
(as “co-augustus” with his brothers from 337 – 340)
(as “co-augustus” with constans from 340 – 350)
(as sole emperor from 350 – 361)
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#62
“JULIAN”
(361 – 363)
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#63
“JOVIAN”
(363 – 364)
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#64
(as ’emperor of the west’ from 364 – 375)
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#65
“VALENS”
(“the last true roman”)
(eastern roman emperor from 364 – 378)
(defeated and killed at the “battle of adrianople”)
(marked beginning of collapse of “western roman empire”)
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#66
(359 – 383)
(nephew of valens)
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#67
“VALENTINIAN II”
(371 – 392)
(nephew of ‘valens’)
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#68
(347 -395)
(reigned from 379 – 395)
(final “sole roman emperor” over east and west)
(*first emperor before east/west split*)
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#69 / #70
THE 2 SONS OF “THEODOSIUS I” –>
(eastern roman emperor)
(377 – 408)
.
(384 – 423)
(western roman emperor)
(reigned from 393 – 423)
.
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#71
(419 – 455)
(‘western roman emperor’ from 425 – 455)
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#72
“PETRONIUS MAXIMUS”
(396 – 455)
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#73
(380 – 457)
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#74
“MAJORIAN”
(420 – 461)
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#75
“LIBIUS SEVERUS”
(420 – 465)
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#76
(420 – 472)
(emperor from 467 – 472)
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#77
“OLYBRIUS”
(died in 472)
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#78
“GLYCERIUS”
(420 – 480)
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#79
*JULIUS NEPOS*
(reigned from 474 – 475)
(430 – 480)
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#80
(reigned from 475 – 476)
(born in 460)
(died sometime after 476)
(apparently still alive as late as 507)
(?!?)
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.
*the roman emperor was the ruler of the ‘roman empire’ during the ‘imperial period’*
.
(the emperors used a variety of different titles throughout ‘history’)
(often when a given ‘roman’ is described as becoming “emperor” in ‘english’, it reflects his taking of the title augustus or ‘caesar’)
(another title often used was imperator, originally a ‘military honorific’)
(early emperors also used the title princeps (or ‘first citizen’))
(’emperors’ frequently amassed ‘republican titles’, notably ‘princeps senatus’, ‘consul’, and ‘pontifex maximus’)
(the legitimacy of an emperor’s rule depended on his control of the ‘army’ and recognition by the ‘senate’; an ’emperor’ would normally be proclaimed by his ‘troops’, or invested with imperial titles by the ‘senate’, or both)
(the first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with ‘co-emperors’ and divide administration of the ’empire’ between them)
(the romans considered the office of ’emperor’ to be distinct from that of a ‘king’)
(the first emperor (‘augustus’) resolutely refused recognition as a ‘monarch’)
(although ‘augustus’ could claim that his power was authentically ‘republican’, his successor, ‘tiberius’, could not convincingly make the same claim)
(nonetheless, for the first 300 years of ‘roman emperors’ (from ‘augustus’ until ‘diocletian’) a great effort was made to emphasize that the emperors were the leaders of a ‘republic’)
(from ‘diocletian’ onwards, emperors ruled in an openly ‘monarchic style’ and did not preserve the nominal principle of a ‘republic’, but the contrast with “kings” was maintained: although the ‘imperial succession’ was generally ‘hereditary’, it was only ‘hereditary’ if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the ‘army’ and the ‘bureaucracy’, so the principle of ‘automatic inheritance’ was not adopted)
(elements of the ‘republican institutional framework’ (as in ‘senate’, ‘consuls’, and ‘magistrates’) were preserved until the very end of the ‘western empire’)
(the eastern (or ‘byzantine’) emperors ultimately adopted the title of “basileus” (βασιλεύς), which had meant king in greek, but became a title reserved solely for the ‘roman emperor’ and the ruler of the ‘sasanian empire’)
(other kings were then referred to as ‘rēgas’)
(in addition to their ‘pontifical office’, some ’emperors’ were given ‘divine status’ after ‘death’)
(with the eventual hegemony of ‘christianity’, the ’emperor’ came to be seen as ‘god’s chosen ruler’, as well as a ‘special protector’ and leader of the ‘christian church’ on ‘earth’, although in practice an emperor’s authority on ‘church matters’ was subject to challenge)
(the ‘western roman empire’ collapsed in the ‘late 5th century’)
(‘romulus augustulus’ is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his ‘forced abdication’ in ‘476’, although ‘julius nepos’ maintained a claim to the title until his death in ‘480’)
(meanwhile, in the east, emperors continued to rule from ‘constantinople’ (“new rome”); these are referred to in ‘modern scholarship’ as “byzantine emperor” but they used no such title and called themselves “emperor (or king) of the romans” (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων))
(‘constantine XI palaiologos’ was the last ‘byzantine roman emperor’ in ‘constantinople’, dying in the ‘fall of constantinople’; to the ‘ottomans’ in ‘1453’)
(due to the cultural rupture of the ‘turkish conquest’, most western historians treat ‘constantine XI’ as the last meaningful claimant to the title ‘roman emperor’, although from ‘1453’ ottoman rulers were titled “caesar of rome” (turkish: Kayser-i Rum) until the ‘ottoman empire’ ended in ‘1922’)
(a ‘byzantine’ group of claimant ‘roman emperors’ existed in the ’empire of trebizond’ until its conquest by the ‘ottomans’ in ‘1461’)
.
(in ‘western europe’ the title of ‘roman emperor’ was revived by ‘germanic rulers’ – the “holy roman emperors” – in 800, and was used until ‘1806’)
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*👨🔬🕵️♀️🙇♀️*SKETCHES*🙇♂️👩🔬🕵️♂️*
.
.
.
.
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👈👈👈☜*“THE ROMAN EMPIRE”* ☞ 👉👉👉
.
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💕💝💖💓🖤💙🖤💙🖤💙🖤❤️💚💛🧡❣️💞💔💘❣️🧡💛💚❤️🖤💜🖤💙🖤💙🖤💗💖💝💘
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*🌈✨ *TABLE OF CONTENTS* ✨🌷*
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🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥*we won the war* 🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥