.
-as of [22 OCTOBER 2024]-
-67 [monarchs]-
(beginning with “offa of mercia” in 757)
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*KING CHARLES 3*
(‘8 SEPTEMBER 2022’ – PRESENT)
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“QUEEN ELIZABETH 2”
(1952 – ‘8 SEPTEMBER 2022’)
(oldest child of ‘king george 6’)
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“KING GEORGE 6”
(1936 – 1952)
(2nd child of ‘king george 5’)
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“KING EDWARD 8”
(1936)
(oldest child of ‘king george 5’)
.
“KING GEORGE 5”
(1910 – 1936)
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“KING EDWARD VII”
(1901 – 1910)
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“QUEEN VICTORIA”
(1837 – 1901)
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“KING WILLIAM IV”
(1830 – 1837)
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“KING GEORGE 4“
(1820 – 1830)
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“KING GEORGE 3“
(1760 – 1820)
.
“KING GEORGE 2”
(1727 – 1760)
.
“KING GEORGE 1“
(1714 – 1727)
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“QUEEN ANNE”
(1702 – 1714)
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“KING WILLIAM 3“
(1689 – 1702)
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“QUEEN MARY 2“
(1689 – 1694)
(co-monarch with “king william III”)
(“william and mary”)
.
“KING JAMES 2”
(1685 – 1688)
.
“KING CHARLES II”
(1660 – 1685)
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“RICHARD CROMWELL”
(1658 – 1659)
.
“OLIVER CROMWELL”
(1653 – 1658)
.
“COUNCIL OF STATE”
(1649 – 1653)
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“KING CHARLES I”
(1625 – 1649)
.
“KING JAMES I”
(1603 – 1625)
.
“QUEEN ELIZABETH I”
(1558 – 1603)
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“QUEEN MARY I”
(1553 – 1558)
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“LADY JANE GREY”
(1553)
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“KING EDWARD VI”
(1547 – 1553)
.
“KING HENRY VIII”
(1509 – 1547)
.
“KING HENRY VII”
(1485 – 1509)
.
“KING RICHARD III”
(1483 – 1485)
.
“KING EDWARD V”
(1483)
.
“KING EDWARD IV”
(1471 – 1483)
(1461 – 1470)
“KING HENRY VI”
(1422 – 1461)
(1470 – 1471)
“KING HENRY V”
(1413 – 1422)
“KING HENRY IV”
(1399 – 1413)
“KING RICHARD II”
(1377 – 1399)
“KING EDWARD III”
(1327 – 1377)
“KING EDWARD II”
(1307 – 1327)
“KING EDWARD I”
(1272 – 1307)
“KING HENRY III”
(1216 – 1272)
“KING JOHN”
(1199 – 1216)
“KING RICHARD I”
(1189 – 1199)
“KING HENRY II”
(1154 – 1189)
“KING STEPHEN”
(1135 – 1154)
“EMPRESS MATILDA”
(1141 – 1148)
(???)
(“holy roman empress”)
“KING HENRY I”
(1100 – 1135)
“KING WILLIAM II”
(1087 – 1100)
“KING WILLIAM I”
(1066 – 1087)
“EDGAR THE ETHELING”
(1066)
“HAROLD GODWINSON”
(1066)
“EDWARD THE CONFESSOR”
(1042 – 1066)
“HARTHACNUT”
(1035 – 1042)
“HAROLD HAREFOOT”
(1035 – 1040)
“CNUT THE GREAT”
(1016 – 1035)
“EDMUND IRONSIDE”
(1016)
“SWEYN”
(1013 – 1014)
“ETHELRED THE UNREADY”
(978 – 1013)
(1014 – 1016)
“EDWARD THE MARTYR”
(975 – 978)
“EDGAR THE PEACEFUL”
(959 – 975)
“EADWIG”
(955 – 959)
“EADRED”
(946 – 955)
“EDMUND I”
(939 – 946)
“ATHELSTAN”
(927 – 939)
(*first king of england*)
“EDWARD THE ELDER”
(899 – 924)
(“king of the anglo-saxons”)
“ALFRED THE GREAT”
(871 – 899)
(“king of wessex”)
“ETHELWULF”
(839 – 858)
(“king of wessex”)
.
“EGBERT OF WESSEX”
(802 – 829)
(“king of wessex”)
.
.
(757 – 796)
(“king of mercia”)
.
“limey royalty”:
“rex anglorum”
(“king of the english”)
offa of mercia was the first to hold this title
(though his power did not survive him)
in the 9th century, england was ruled by the “kings of wessex”)
(they conquered kent + sussex from mercia in 825)
a “knight” is merely a skilled killer:
“heptarchy”:
(seven anglo-saxon kingdoms during late antiquity and early middle ages)
NORTHUMBRIA
MERCIA
EAST ANGLIA
ESSEX
KENT
SUSSEX
WESSEX
BRITISH ROYALTY:
EGBERT OF WESSEX
(forced into exile in the 780s by offa of mercia)
(802 – 839)
(became first “king of england” in 829)
ÆTHELWULF
(839 – 856)
(means “noble wolf”)
ALFRED THE GREAT
(849 – 899)
(king of wessex)
(first king of the anglo-saxons)
(the only english king to be called “the great”)
(defended england against the vikings)
EDWARD THE ELDER
(874 – 924)
(eldest son of alfred the great)
ATHELSTAN
(895 – 939)
(son of edward the elder)
(conquered northumbria in 937)
(first to be given the title “rex anglorum”)
EDMUND I
(922 – 946)
(half-brother of athelstan)
EADRED
(946 – 955)
EADWIG
(941 – 959)
(his death is still a mystery)
EDGAR THE PEACEFUL
(943 – 975)
(younger son of edmund I)
EDWARD THE MARTYR
(962 – 978)
ÆTHELRED THE UNREADY
(aka “ÆTHELRED II”)
(978 – 1013)
(1014 – 1016)
son of edgar the peaceful and queen Ælfthryth
he was between 10 and 13 when his half-brother edward the martyr was murdered
SWEYN
(960 – 1014)
(sweyn I forkbeard)
(sven the dane)
(swegen)
(tuck)
king of denmark and england
(as well as parts of norway)
viking leader and father of cnut the great
his father harald I of denmark died in 986 and he became king of denmark in 1000
(with the allegiance of the trondejarl)
with erik of lade, he ruled most of norway
after a long effort at conquest, in 1013 he founded swansea
(which comes from “sweyn’s ey”)
then he became king of england
he was also the danish sovereign of a north sea empire
(only his son cnut outdid this northern european empire)
EDMUND IRONSIDE
(988 – 1016)
became king of england in 1016
his nickname “ironside” refers to his efforts to fend off a viking invasion led by cnut the great
his authority was thereafter limited to wessex (the area south of the river thames)
the north was controlled by cnut
(who became “king of all england” after edmund’s death)
CNUT THE GREAT
(985 – 1035)
viking king of denmark
HAROLD HAREFOOT
(1015 – 1040)
(aka “harold I”)
king of england from 1037 – 1040
“harefoot” refers to his speed and his hunting skills
son of cnut the great
those who opposed his kingship spread rumors that he was not really the son of cnut the great
HARTHACNUT
(aka “cnut the hardy”)
(1020 – 1042)
danish king from 1035 – 1042
king of england from 1040 – 1042
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR
(1003 – 1066)
son of ethelred the unready and emma of normandy
one of the last anglo-saxon kings of england
regarded as the last king of the house of wessex
ruled from 1042 – 1066
his reign marked the disintegration of royal power in england and the advancement in power of the earls. it foreshadowed the country’s domination by the normans. their duke (william of normandy) was to defeat edward’s successor harold godwinson and seize the crown.
edward succeeded cnut’s son harthacnut and restored the rule of the house of wessex after the period of danish rule after cnut conquered england in 1016. edward died in 1066 with no son to take over the throne. so 3 men laid claim to the throne of england.
edward was canonized in 1161 by pope alexander III. he is commemorated on 13 october by the roman catholic church and other anglican churches. he is the patron saint of kings, difficult marriages, and separated spouses.
from the reign of henry II to 1348, he was considered the patron saint of england. during the reign of edward III, he was replaced by saint george (though saint edward remains the patron saint of the british royal family)
HAROLD GODWINSON
(aka “harold II”)
(1022 – 1066)
last anglo-saxon king of england. he only reigned for one year. he died at the battle of hastings while fighting the normans. norman invaders led by william the conqueror emerged victorious. harold is only one of three english kings to die in battle (along with richard the lionheart and richard III)
EDGAR THE ETHELING
(briefly proclaimed king in 1066)
(deposed after 8 weeks)
(1051 – 1126)
last male member of the royal house of cerdic of wessex
proclaimed (but never crowned) king of england
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR
(1028 – 1087)
(aka “william the bastard”)
(because of the illegitimacy of his birth)
he invaded england in 1066 with an army of bretons, flemings, and frenchmen from paris. he defeated harold godwinson at the battle of hastings and suppressed subsequent english rebellions. he brought norman-french culture to england. his reign saw a programme of building and fortification, changes in the english language, a shift in the upper levels of society and the church, and adoption of some aspects of continental church reform.
WILLIAM II:
king of england from 1087 – 1100
(and powers over scotland)
(but he couldn’t take over wales)
(commonly known as “william rufus” because of his red-faced appearance)
effective soldier
ruthless ruler
not well-liked by his subjects
struggled against the church
(the historians who judged william II were church officials)
(questions about his sexuality)
in keeping with norman tradition, he scorned the english and their culture
william was a flamboyant character with a bellicose temper
he did not marry nor produce any offspring
his chief minister was ranulf flambard
(whom he appointed bishop of durham in 1099)
(this was a political appointment to a see that was also a great fiefdom)
HENRY I:
fourth son of william I of england
succeeded his elder brother william II in 1100
defeated his eldest brother robert curthose to become duke of normandy in 1106
he was called “beauclere” for his scholarly interests
he was called “lion of justice” for refinements which he brought about in the administration and legislative machinery of his time
reign was noted for his political opportunism. his succession was confirmed while his brother robert was away on the first crusade. the beginning of his reign was occupied by wars with robert for control of england and normandy. he successfully reunited the two realms again after their separation on his father’s death in 1087. upon his succession he granted the baronage a “charter of liberties”, which formed a basis for subsequent challenges to rights of kings and presaged the “magna carta” (which subjected the king to law).
the rest of henry’s reign was filled with judicial and financial reforms. he established the biannual “exchequer” to reform the treasury. he used itinerant officials to curb abuses of power at the local and regional level, garnering the praise of the people. the differences between the english people and the norman people began to break down during his reign and he married a daughter of the old english royal house. he made peace with the church after the disputes of his brother’s reign, but he could not smooth out his succession after the disastrous loss of his eldest son in the wreck of the “white ship”. his will stipulated that he was to be succeeded by his daughter, the “empress matilda” but his stern rule was followed by a period of civil wars known as the “anarchy”.
STEPHEN
(1096 – 1154)
referred to as “stephen of blois”
grandson of william I
the last norman king of england
(from 1135 – 1154)
(also the “count of boulogne”)
his reign was marked by civil war with his cousin and rival “empress matilda”
(general chaos known as “the anarchy”)
he was succeeded by matilda’s son, henry II
(the first of the “angevin” or “plantagenet” kings)
EMPRESS MATILDA
(aka “matilda of england”)
(aka “maude”)
the daughter and heir of king henry I of england
matilda and her younger brother willian adelin were the only legitimate children of king henry to survive to adulthood. her brother died in the “white ship”, making matilda the last heir from the paternal line of her grandfather “william the conqueror”
as a child, matilda was betrothed to (and later married) henry V (holy roman emperor). this is how she acquired the title “empress”. the couple had no children. when widowed, she was married to “geoffrey of anjou” with whom she had three sons (the eldest became henry II of england)
matilda was the first female ruler of the kingdom of england. but the length of her effective rule was brief (only a few months in 1141). she was never crowned and failed to consolidate her rule (both legally and politically). for this reason, she is normally excluded from the list of english monarchs. her rival “stephen of blois” is listed as monarch from 1135 – 1154. their rivalry for the throne led to years of unrest and civil war in england (“the anarchy”). she secured the inheritance of the “duchy of normandy” through the military feats of her husband geoffrey. she campaigned for her oldest son’s inheritance, living to see him ascend the throne in 1154.
HENRY II
(1133 – 1189)
ruled as king of england from 1154 – 1189
crowned in london’s westminster abbey
(count of anjou)
(count of maine)
(duke of normandy)
(duke of aquitaine)
(duke of gasony)
(count of nantes)
(lord of ireland)
he also controlled parts of wales, scotland, and western france
he was the great-grandson of william the conqueror
the first from the “house of plantagenet” to rule england
he was the first to use the title “king of england”
(as opposed to “king of the english”)
(aka “henry curtmantle” / “curtmantel” / “henry fitz-empress”)
RICHARD I
(1157 – 1199)
king of england from 1189 – 1199
(duke of normandy)
(duke of aquitaine)
(duke of gascony)
(lord of ireland)
(lord of cyprus)
(count of anjou)
(count of maine)
(count of nantes)
(overlord of brittany)
(known as “cœur de lion” or “richard the lionheart”)
(because before he became king, he was a great military leader and warrior)
the muslims (or “saracens”) called him “melek-rich” or “melek al-inkitar”
(king of england)
by age 16, richard was commanding his own army. he put down rebellions in poitou against his father henry II. he was a central christian commander during the third crusade, effectively leading the campaign after the departure of philip augustus and scoring considerable victories against his muslim counterpart saladin. but he was unable to reconquer jerusalem.
he spoke very little english and spent very little time in england. he lived in his “duchy of aquitaine” in the southwest of france. he preferred to use his kingdom as a source of revenue to support his armies.
he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects. he remains one of the very few kings of england remember by his epithet (rather than regnal number) and is still an enduring iconic figure in england.
JOHN:
(1167 – 1216)
king of england from 1199 – 1216
john was the youngest of five songs of king henry II of england and eleanor (duchess of aquitaine). he was their second surviving son to ascend the throne (continuing the plantagenet angevin kings of england). prior to his accession, he was earl of cornwall and earl of gloucester (but this title merged into the crown when he became king).
his oldest surviving brother richard became king upon the death of their father in 1189 and john was made count of mortain (france). when richard refused to honor their father’s wishes and surrender aquitaine to him as well, john staged a rebellion. the rebellion failed and john lost all potential claims to lands in france. he acceded to the throne upon the death of richard I (who died without an heir).
during his lifetime, he acquired two epithets. one was “lackland” (because as his father’s youngest son he did not inherit land out of his family’s holdings and because as king he lost significant territory to france). the other was “softsword” signifying his supposed lack of prowess in battle.
he is best known as “king john” (the enemy of robin hood). he is also known for letting the barons of english nobility enact the “magna carta” (a document which limited kingly power in england and which is popularly thought of as an early step in the evolution of limited government).
HENRY III:
(1207 – 1272)
son and successor of king john
king of england from 1216 – 1272
known as “henry of winchester”
first child king in england since “ethelred the unready”
england prospered during his reign and his greatest monument is “westminster” which he made the seat of his government and where he expanded the abbey as a shrine to edward the confessor. he assumed the crown under regency of the popular william marshal. the england he inherited had undergone several drastic changes in the reign of his father. he spent much of his reign fighting the barons over the magna carta and royal rights. he was eventually forced to call the first “parliament of england” in 1264. he was unsuccessful on the continent where he endeavored to re-establish english control over normandy, anjou, and aquitaine.
EDWARD I
(1239 – 1307)
(aka “edward longshanks”)
(aka “hammer of the scots”)
king of england from 1272 – 1307
first son of henry III
involved in the political intrigues of his father’s reign which included an outright rebellion by the english barons. in 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the “provisions of oxford”. after a reconciliation with his father, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the “second barons’ war”. after the “battle of lewes”, he was hostage to the rebellious barons but escaped after a few months and joined the fight against “simon de montfort”. montfort was defeated at the “battle of evesham” in 1265 and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. with england pacified, edward left on the ninth crusade to the holy land. the crusade accomplished little and edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. making a slow return, he reached england in 1274 and was crowned king.
in the first phase of his reign, he reformed the royal administration. through an extensive legal inquiry, he investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. then he was increasingly drawn to military affairs. he suppressed a minor rebellion in wales (1276 – 1277) and responded to a second rebellion in 1282-1283 with a full-scale war of conquest. after a successful campaign, he subjected wales to english rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, and settled them with englishmen. then his efforts were directed towards scotland. initially invited to arbitrate a succession dispute, he claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. in the first scottish war of independence, the scots persevered (even though the english seemed victorious at several points). at the same time there were problems at home. in the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and edward met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition. these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. when the king died in 1307, he left behind a number of financial and political problems to his son edward II (as well as an ongoing war with scotland).
edward was a tall man for his era (hence his nickname “longshanks”). he was temperamental and this (along with his height) made him an intimidating man and he instilled fear in his contemporaries. but he still held the respect of his subjects for the way in which he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship (as a soldier, administrator, and man of faith). he has been praised for his contribution to the law and administration. he has been criticized for his uncompromising attitude to the nobility. he is credited with restoring royal authority after the reign of henry III, establishing parliament as a permanent institution (and a functional system for raising taxes), and reforming the law through statutes. he is criticized for his brutal conduct towards the scots and his expulsion of jews from england in 1290.
EDWARD II
(1284 – 1327)
(aka “edward of caernafon)
king of england from 1307 – 1327
he was deposed by his wife isabella of france
he was the seventh plantagenet king in a line that began with henry II
between the strong reigns of his father edward I and son edward III, his reign was disastrous for england (marked by incompetence, political squabbling, and military defeats).
he was widely rumored to have been either homosexual or bisexual. yet he fathered at least five children by two women. his inability to deny even the most grandiose favors to his male favorites (the gascon knight “piers gaveston” and a young english lord named “hugh despenser the younger) led to constant political unrest and his eventual deposition.
he pacified gwynedd and some other parts of wales and the scottish lowlands but never exerted a comprehensive conquest. the army of edward II was devastatingly defeated at bannockburn, freeing scotland from english control and allowing scottish forces to raid unchecked throughout the north of england.
he died @ berkeley castle (allegedly by murder). he was the first monarch to establish colleges in the now widely-noted universities “university of oxford” and “university of cambridge” (specifically oriel college @ oxford and king’s hall (a predecessor of trinity college) @ cambridge)
EDWARD III
(1312 – 1377)
one of the most successful kings of england of the middle ages
he restored royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father edward II and went on to transform the kingdom of england into the most efficient military power in europe. his reign saw vital developments in legislature and government (in particular the evolution of the english parliament) as well as the ravages of the “black death”. he remained on the throne for 50 years. no english monarch had reigned for as long since henry III and none would again until george III.
he was crowned at age 14 following the deposition of his father. at age 17, he led a coup against his regent (1st earl of march roger mortimer) and began his personal reign. after defeating (but not subjugating) the kingdom of scotland, he declared himself rightful heir to the french throne in 1338 (starting what would become known as the “hundred years’ war”). following some initial setbacks, the war went exceptionally well for england with victories at crecy and poitiers in 1356. poitiers led up to the favorable “treaty of bretigny”. his later reign was marked by international failure and domestic strife (largely as a result of his inertia and bad health).
he was a temperamental man (but also capable of great clemency). he was a conventional king (mainly interested in warfare). highly revered in his own time (and for centuries later), he was later denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by whig historians. in modern times, he is credited with many achievements.
RICHARD II
(1367 – 1400)
the eighth king of england of the “house of plantagenet”
(1377 – 1399)
he was deposed in 1399
he was the son of “edward the black prince” and born during the reign of his grandfather edward III. at age 4, richard became second in line to the throne when his older brother edward of angouleme died. he became heir apparent when his father died in 1376. with edward III’s death the following year, he succeeded to the throne at age 10.
during his first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of councils. the political community preferred this arrangement to a regency led by the king’s uncle (“john of gaunt, 1st duke of lancaster”). but gaunt remained highly influential.
the first major challenge to the reign was the “peasants’ revolt” in 1381. the young king handled the revolt well and played a major part in suppressing the rebellion. in the following years, the king’s dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent in the political community. in 1387, control of the government was taken over by a group of noblemen known as the “lords appellant”. by 1389 richard had regained control and for the next 8 years he governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. in 1397 he took revenge on the appellants. many were executed or exiled. the next two years were described as richard’s “tyranny”. in 1399 (after the death of john of gaunt), the king disinherited gaunt’s son (henry of bolingbroke). henry had previously been exiled. henry invaded england in june 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. he initially claimed that his goal was only to reclaim his patrimony, but it soon became clear that he intended to claim the throne for himself. meeting little resistance, henry deposed richard and had himself crowned king henry IV of england. richard died in captivity the next year (he was probably murdered).
as an individual, richard was tall, good-looking, and intelligent. early historians believed he was “insane” (though he was probably not). but he did seem to suffer from several “personality disorders” (especially towards the end of his reign). he was less of a warrior than either his father or grandfather. he sought to bring an end to the “hundred years’ war” that edward III had started. he was a firm believer in “royal prerogative” which led him to restrain the power of his nobility and rely on a private retinue for military protection. he cultivated a courtly atmosphere where the king was an elevated figure and art + culture were at the center. this contrasted with the fraternal martial court of his grandfather. his posthumous reputation has been shaped by the shakespeare play “richard II” which portrayed richard’s misrule and bolingbroke’s deposition as responsible for the 15th century “war of the roses”. however, modern historians do not accept this interpretation (but they still don’t absolve richard from blame for his own deposition). even though his policies were not unprecedented or entirely unrealistic, the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment (leading to his downfall).
HENRY IV
(1366 – 1413)
king of england + lord of ireland
(1399 – 1413)
the ninth king of england of the “house of plantagenet”
asserted his grandfather edward III’s claim to the throne of france
born at bolingbroke castle in lincolnshire (hence his name “henry of bolingbroke”)
his father john of gaunt was the third son of edward III and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during the reign of richard II. henry came to the throne after the deposition of his cousin richard II. his mother was “blanche of lancaster” (heiress to the considerable lancaster estates). he is the first king of england from the lancaster branch of the plantagenets (one of the two family branches, the other being the york branch initiated by his uncle edmund of langley, 1st duke of york). they were protagonists of the “war of the roses”.
HENRY V
(1387 – 1422)
king of england from 1413 – 1422
following an unassuming start, his military successes in the hundred years’ war (culminating with his victory @ the “battle of agincourt”) saw him come close to conquering france
HENRY VI
(1421 – 1471)
king of england from 1422 – 1461 and 1470 -1471
disputed king of france from 1422 – 1453
until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. he was peaceful and pious, not suited for the harsh “war of the roses” to come. his periods of insanity and his inherent benevolence eventually led to his downfall, the collapse of the house of lancaster, and the rise of the house of york.
EDWARD IV
(1442 – 1483)
king of england from 1461 – 1470 and 1471 – 1483
the first king from the house of york
the first half of his rule was characterized by the “war of the roses” but he overcame the remaining threats from the house of lancaster at the “battle of tewkesbury” to reign in peace until his death. before becoming king he was the fourth duke of york, fifth earl of cambridge, seventh earl of march, and ninth earl of ulster. he was the 65th knight of the order of the golden fleece.
RICHARD NEVILLE
(1428 – 1471)
(aka “warwick the kingmaker”)
english nobleman, administrator, and military commander
son of richard neville (5th earl of salisbury) and the wealthiest + most powerful english peer of his age. he had political connections that went beyond the country’s borders. one of the main protagonists in the “war of the roses”, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings (hence his nickname “the kingmaker”)
through fortunes of marriage + inheritance, warwick emerged in the 1450s at the center of english politics. originally a supporter of henry VI, a territorial dispute with edmund beaufort (1st duke of somerset) led him to collaborate with richard plantagenet (3rd duke of york) to oppose the king. from this conflict he gained the strategically valuable post of “captain of calais” (a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come). the political conflict later turned into full-scale rebellion. both york and warwick’s father (salisbury) fell in battle. york’s son triumphed with warwick’s assistance and was later crowned king edward IV. edward initially ruled with warwick’s support, but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the king’s choice of partner in marriage. after a failed plot to crown edward’s brother (george plantagenet, 1st duke of clarence), warwick instead restored henry VI to the throne. the triumph was short-lived. in 1471, warwick was defeated at the “battle of barnet” and killed.
warwick had no sons. the eldest of his two daughters (isabel) married george (duke of clarence). his youngest daughter anna had a short-lived marriage to king henry’s son edward and later married king edward’s younger brother richard (duke of gloucester). he later became king richard III.
warwick’s historical legacy is disputed. some see him as self-centered and rash. others saw him as the victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. in his own time he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society. he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support.
EDWARD V
(1470 – 1483)
he was king of england in 1483 (and deposed two months later)
his reign was dominated by the influence of his uncle richard (duke of gloucester) who succeeded him as king richard III. along with his younger brother richard of shrewsbury (duke of york), he was one of the “princes in the tower” who disappeared after being sent (ostensibly for their own safety) to the tower of london. richard III is suspected in their deaths (although this theory has been disputed).
along with edward VIII, empress matilda, and lady jane grey, edward V is one of four english monarchs since the norma conquest never to have been crowned. he likely died before his 15th birthday. he is the shortest-lived monarch in english history (as his great-nephew edward VI died at age 16).
RICHARD III
(1452 – 1485)
king of england from 1483 to 1485
(died in the battle of bosworth)
last king of the house of york and the last of the “plantagenet dynasty”
his defeat at the battle of bosworth was the decisive battle in the “war of the roses” and is sometimes regarded as the end of the middle ages in england.
he is the central character in the shakespeare play “richard III”
his brother king edward VI died in 1383 and richard was named lord protector of the realm for edward’s son and successor (the 12-year-old king edward V). as edward traveled from ludlow to london, richard escorted him to the tower of london. edward’s brother richard shrewsbury soon joined him there.
a publicity campaign was mounted condemning edward IV’s marriage to the boys’ mother elizabeth woodville as “invalid” (making their children illegitimate and ineligible for the throne). an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed these claims. the next day richard III officially began his reign. the two young princes disappeared in august and many suspected that the boys were murdered by richard.
there were two major rebellions against richard. the first rebellion (in 1483) was led by opponents of edward IV and richard’s ally henry stafford (2nd duke of buckingham). the revolt collapsed and henry stafford was executed at salisbury (near the bull’s head inn). in 1485 there was another rebellion against richard, headed by henry tudor (2nd earl of richmond) and his uncle jasper. the rebels landed troops (composed mainly of mercenaries) and richard fell in the “battle of bosworth field”. he was the last english king to die in battle and the only english king to die in battle on english soil since harold II (at the battle of hastings in 1066).
HENRY VII
(1457 – 1509)
king of england and lord of ireland from 1485 – 1509
first monarch of the “house of tudor”
he defeated richard III at the “battle of bosworth field”. he was the last king of england to win his throne on the field of battle. he restored the power and stability of the english monarchy after the political upheaval of the “war of the roses”. he founded a long-lasting dynasty and was peaceably succeeded by his son henry VIII after a 23-year reign.
he is credited with the restoration of political stability in england and a number of administrative, economic, and diplomatic initiatives. the latter part of his reign was characterized by a financial rapacity which stretched the boundaries of legality. this can be attributed to greed which over-asserted royal control.
HENRY VIII
(1491 – 1547)
king of england from 1509 – 1547
(crowned at age 18)
he beheaded his wives
(as illustrated in the goofy “herman’s hermits” song)
EDWARD VI
(1537 – 1553)
king of england from 1547 – 1553
(crowned at age 10)
son of henry VIII and jane seymour
he became terminally ill and bequeathed his throne to “lady jane grey”
LADY JANE GREY
(1537 – 1554)
(queen of england for 9 days)
(died at age 17)
(executed for high treason)
she was beheaded. with her head on the block, she repeated the final words of jesus christ as recounted by luke:
“lord, into thy hands i commend my spirit!”
MARY I
(1516 – 1558)
(aka “bloody mary”)
(eldest daughter of henry VIII and catherine of aragon)
(re-established the catholic church in great britain)
(she had 300 religious dissenters burned at the stakes in the “marian persecution”)
QUEEN ELIZABETH I
(1533 – 1603)
(queen of england from 1558 – 1603)
(crowned at age 25)
(aka “the virgin queen”)
(aka “gloriana”)
(aka “good queen bess”)
the final monarch of the tudor dynasty
daughter of henry VIII and anne boleyn
(like the TV character “dexter”, her mother was executed when she was 2.5 years old)
(she was declared illegitimate)
(she died at richmond place at age 70)
(she remained a virgin, hence her nickname “the virgin queen”)
JAMES I
(1566 – 1625)
he was “king james VI” of scotland from 1567 – 1625
(he was 13 months old)
he succeeded his mother (“mary, queen of scots”). she had been compelled to abdicate his his favor. regents governed scotland during his youth (which ended officially in 1578). he did not gain full control of the government until 1581.
he was “king james I” of england + ireland from 1603 – 1625
“union of the crowns” of england + scotland
(though they were still considered separate entities)
(he was based in england)
he succeeded the last tudor monarch of england and ireland (elizabeth I) since she died without an heir. he then ruled england, scotland, and ireland for 22 years (with the title “king of great britain”) until his death at age 58. he claimed to be the king of france (though he did not actually rule france).
under james, the “golden age” of the “elizabethan era” began.
elizabethan literature and drama flourished (with writers such as william shakespeare, john donne, ben jonson, and francis bacon).
james was a talented scholar, authoring such works as “daemonologie” 1597), “true law of free monarchies” (1598), and “basilikon doron” (1599).
he was nicknamed “the wisest fool in christendom”.
CHARLES I
(1600 – 1649)
second son of james I
king of england + scotland + ireland from 1625 – 1649
(he was executed)
he engaged in a struggle for power with the parliament of england, attempting to obtain royal revenue while the parliament sought to curb his royal prerogative (which charles believed was “divinely ordained”). many of his subjects opposed his actions, in particular his interference in the english + scottish churches and the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent (which grew to be seen as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch).
religious conflicts permeated charles’s reign. his failure to successfully aid protestant forces during the “thirty years’ war” coupled with such actions as marrying a catholic woman (“princess henrietta maria of france”) generated deep mistrust concerning the king’s dogma. charles allied himself with controversial religious figures (such as the ecclesiastic richard montagu and willian laud (whom charles appointed to archbishop of canterbury). many of charles’ subjects felt that this brought the “church of england” too close to the catholic church. charles’ attempts to force religious reforms upon scotland led to the “bishops’ war”, which strengthened the position of the english parliament and led to the king’s downfall.
in the “english civil war”, he fought the forces of the english + scottish parliaments (who had challenged the king’s attempts to overrule and negate parliamentary authory) whilst simultaneously using his position as head of the english church to pursue religious policies which generated the antipathy of reformed groups such as the puritans. charles was defeated in the first civil war (1642 – 1645) and parliament expected him to accept its demands for a constitutional monarchy. he instead remained defiant by attempting to forge an alliance with scotland and escaping to the “isle of wight”. this provoked the “second civil war” (1648 – 1649) and a second defeat for charles. he was captured, tried, convicted, and executed for high treason. the british monarchy was abolished and a republic called the “commonwealth of england” (aka the “cromwellian interregnum”) was declared. charles’ son charles II became king after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. in the same year, charles I was canonized as “saint charles stuart” (aka “king charles the martyr”) by the church of england.
COUNCIL OF STATE
(aka the “protector’s privy council”)
first appointed by the “rump parliament” in 1649 after the execution of king charles I.
dissolved in 1653.
restored in 1659
dissolved in 1660
the execution of king charles I was delayed for several hours so that the house of commons could pass an emergency bill making it an offense to proclaim a new king and to declare the representative of the people (the house of commons) as the source of all just power. this abolished the monarchy and the house of lords.
the council of state was appointed by parliament in 1649 with further annual elections. the council’s duties were to act as the executive of the country’s government in place of the king and the “privy council”. it was to direct domestic and foreign policy and ensure the security of the “english commonwealth”. due to disagreements between the “new model army” and the weakened parliament, the council of state was dominated by the army.
the council held its first meeting in 1649 with oliver cromwell as chairman. there were only 14 men in attendance (barely more than the legal quorum of 9 of 41 councillors elected by parliament). the first elected president of the council was john bradshaw (who had been president of the court at the trial of charles I) and the first to sign the king’s death warrant.
the members of the first council were:
earl of denbigh
earl of mulgrave
earl of pembroke
earl of salisbury
lord grey
lord fairfax
lord lisle
lord rolle
lord oliver saint john
john wilde (jurist)
john bradshaw (judge)
oliver cromwell
philip skippon
gilbert pickering
arthur haselrig
james harrington
henry vane jun
john danvers
henry mildmay
william constable
bulstrode whitelocke
edmund ludlow
william hevingham
robert wallop
john hutchinson
denis bond (president of the council)
valentine walton
thomas scot
william purefoy
john jones
at the start of the protectorate (10 days after the dissolution of the rump parliament in 1653), cromwell told the council that it no longer existed and, together with the council of officers, instituted a new council of state. with the failure of the “barebones parliament”, the council was remodeled with the “instrument of government” (1653) to become something closer to the old “privy council” advising the “lord protector” oliver cromwell. constitutionally between 13 and 21 councillors were elected by parliament to advise the protector, who was also elected by parliament. in reality, cromwell relied on the army for support and chose his own councillors.
the replacement constitution of 1657, the pseudo-monarchical “humble petition and advice”, authorized “his highness the lord protector” to choose 21 councillors and the power to nominate his successor. cromwell recommended his eldest surviving son richard cromwell, who was proclaimed the successor on his father’s death in 1658 and legally confirmed in the position by the newly elected “third protectorate parliament” in 1659.
after the reinstatement of the “rump parliament” (1659) and the subsequent abolition of the position of lord protector, the role of the council of state along with other interregnum institutions becomes confused as the instruments of state started to implode. the council of state was not dissolved until 1660 when king charles II personally assumed the government in london.
OLIVER CROMWELL
(1599 – 1658)
english military and political leader best known in england for his involvement in making england into a republican commonwealth and for his later role as “lord protector” of england, scotland, and ireland. events that occurred during his reign and his politics are a cause of animosity between ireland and the UK.
he was one of the commanders of the “new model army” which defeated the royalists in the english civil war. after the execution of king charles I in 1649, cromwell dominated the short-lived “commonwealth of england”, conquered ireland and scotland, and ruled as lord protector from 1653 until his death from malaria in 1658.
cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years old his life. his lifestyle resembled that of a yeoman farmer until he received an inheritance from his uncle. after undergoing a religious conversion during the same decade, cromwell made an independent style of puritanism an essential part of his life. he was elected “member of parliament” for cambridge in the “short parliament” (1640) and “long parliament” (1640 – 1649). he entered the english civil war on the side of the “roundheads” (or “parliamentarians”).
as a soldier, he was more than capable (nicknamed “old ironsides”) and was soon promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to command of the entire army. he was one of the signatories of king charles I’s death warrant in 1649. he was a member of the “rump parliament” (1649 – 1653) which selected him to take command of the english campaign in ireland during 1649-1650. he led a campaign against the scottish army between 1650 and 1651. in 1653 he dismissed the rump parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly called “barebones parliament” before being made lord protector of england, wales, scotland, and ireland in 1653. he was buried in westminster abbey. after the english restoration, they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded.
cromwell is a controversial figure in the history of great britain. he is considered a regicidal dictator by david hume and christopher hill. he is considered a hero of liberty to thomas carlyle and samuel rawson gardiner. in a 2002 BBC poll, cromwell was elected as one of the top 10 britons of all time. his measures against irish catholics have been characterized as genocidal and for this reason he is hated in ireland.
RICHARD CROMWELL
(1626 – 1712)
the third son of oliver cromwell. he was the second lord protector of england, scotland, and ireland. he served just under nine months (from 1658 – 1659). his enemies dubbed him “tumbledown dick” (or “queen dick”) for his indecisive character.
CHARLES II
(1630 – 1685)
king of england + scotland + ireland
his father charles I was executed at whitehall in 1649 at the climax of the english civil war. although the parliament of scotland proclaimed charles II “king of great britain and ireland” in 1649, the english parliament instead passed a statute that made any such proclamation in england and ireland unlawful. england entered the period known to history as the “english interregnum” or the “english commonwealth” and the country was a de facto republic, led by oliver cromwell. cromwell defeated charles at the “battle of worcester” in 1651 and charles fled to mainland europe. cromwell became virtual dictator of england, scotland, and ireland. charles spent the next nine years in exile in france, the united provinces, and the spanish netherlands.
a political crisis that followed the death of cromwell in 1658 resulted in the “english restoration” of the monarchy and charles was invited to return to britain. in 1660 (on his 30th birthday), he was received in london to public acclaim. after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if charles had succeeded his father as king in 1649.
his english parliament enacted laws known as the “clarendon code”, designed to shore up the position of the re-established church of england. charles acquiesced to the clarendon code even though he favored a policy of religious tolerance. the major foreign policy issue of charles’ early reign was the “second anglo-dutch war”. in 1670, charles entered into the “secret treaty of dover” (an alliance with his first cousin king louis XIV of france). louis agreed to aid charles in the “third anglo-dutch war” and pay charles a pension. charles secretly agreed to convert to roman catholicism at an unspecified future date. charles attempted to introduce freedom of religion for catholics and protestant dissenters with his 1672 “royal declaration of indulgence” but the english parliament forced him to withdraw it. in 1679, titus oates’s revelations of a supposed “popish plot” sparked the “exclusion crisis” when it was revealed that charles’s brother and heir james (duke of york) was a roman catholic. the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion whig party and anti-exclusion tory party. charles sided with the tories and following the discovery of the “rye house plot” (to murder charles and james) in 1683, some whig leaders were killed or forced into exile. charles dissolved the english parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685. he converted to roman catholicism on his deathbed.
charles was popularly known as the “merrie monarch” in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at the return to normalcy after over a decade of rule by oliver cromwell and the puritans. charles’s wife catherine of braganza bore no children but charles acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses.
GEORGE MONCK
(1608 – 1670)
first duke of albemarle
english solider + politician
key figure in the restoration of charles II
JAMES II
(1633 – 1701)
king of england and ireland
(and king of scotland as james VII)
(1685 – 1688)
the last catholic monarch to reign over the kingdoms of england, scotland, and ireland
britain’s political and religious leaders opposed him as too pro-french, too pro-catholic, and too much of an absolute monarch. when he produced a catholic heir, his enemies called on william III of orange (his son-in-law and nephew) to land an invasion army from the netherlands. james fled england (thus abdicating his throne) in the “glorious revolution” of 1688. he was replaced by william of orange who became king william III, ruling jointly with his wife (james’s daughter) mary II. so william and mary (both protestants) became joint rulers in 1689. james made one serious attempt to recover his crowns when he landed in ireland in 1689. but after the defeat of the jacobite forces by the williamite forces at the “battle of the boyne” in the summer of 1690, james returned to france. he lived out the rest of his life as a “pretender” at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, king louis XIV of france.
james is best known for his belief in absolute monarchy and his attempts to create religious liberty for his subjects against the wishes of the english parliament. parliament, opposed to the growth of absolutism that was occurring in other european countries, as well as the loss of their legal supremacy for the church of england, saw their opposition as a way to preserve what they regarded as traditional english liberties. this tension made james’s four-year reign a struggle for supremacy between the english parliament and the crown, resulting in his deposition, the passage of the english bill of rights, and the hanoverian succession
WILLIAM III
(1650 – 1702)
sovereign prince of orange by birth
from 1672 he government as william III of orange over holland, zeeland, utrecht, guelders, and overijssel of the dutch republic. from 1689 he reigned as william III over england and ireland (and william II over scotland).
he is informally known in northern ireland and scotland as “king billy”. a member of the house of orange-nassau, william won the english, scottish, and irish crowns following the glorious revolution (in which his uncle and father-in-law james II was deposed). in the british isles, william ruled jointly with his wife (mary II), until her death in 1694. historians refer to their joint reign as that of “william and mary”.
a protestant, william participated in several wars against the powerful catholic king of france (louis XIV) in coalition with protestant and catholic powers in europe. many protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith. largely because of that reputation, william was able to take the british crowns when many were fearful of a revival of catholicism under james. william’s victory over james II at the “battle of the boyne” in 1690 is commemorated by the “orange institution” in northern ireland to this day. his reign marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the stuarts to the more-parliament centered rule of the house of hanover.
MARY II
(1662 – 1694)
queen regnant of england, scotland, and ireland from 1689 until her death
mary, a protestant, came to the thrones following the glorious revolution, which resulted in the deposition of her roman catholic father, james II. mary reigned jointly with her husband and first cousin, william III (who became the sole ruler of both countries upon her death in 1694). historians refer to the joint reigns as those of “william and mary”.
mary wielded less power than william during the parts of her reign when william remained in england, ceding most of her authority to her husband (though he heavily relied on her). she did, however, govern the realms alone when william was engaged in military campaigns abroad. she proved herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. she was very active in the church of england, which she ruled as its “supreme governor”. though she shared the post with her husband, she larger exercised its power alone.
ANNE
(1665 – 1714)
queen regnant of england, scotland, and ireland from 1702 – 1714
she succeeded her brother-in-law and cousin william III. her catholic father james II was deemed by the english parliament to have abdicated when he was forced to retreat to france during the “glorious revolution” of 1688. her brother-in-law and sister became joint monarchs as william III and mary II. after mary’s death in 1694, william continued as sole monarch until his death in 1702.
in 1707, under the “acts of union 1707”, england and scotland were united as a single sovereign state (the “kingdom of great britain”). anne became its first sovereign while continuing to hold the separate crown “queen of ireland” and the title of “queen of france”. anne reigned for 12 years until her death in 1714. therefore she was the last queen of england and the last queen of scots.
anne’s life was marked by many crises, both personal and relating to succession of the crown and religious polarization. because she died without surviving children, anne was the last monarch of the house of stuart. she was succeeded by her second cousin george I of the house of hanover, who was a descendant of the stuarts through his maternal grandmother elizabeth (daughter of james I).
GEORGE I
(1660 – 1727)
king of great britain and ireland from 1714 – 1727
ruler of hanover in the holy roman empire from 1698 – 1727
born in lower saxony (what is now germany) and inherited the title and lands of the duke of brunswick-luneburg. a succession of european wars expanded his german domains during his lifetime. in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of hanover. at the age of 54, after the death of queen anne, george ascended to the british throne as the first monarch of the house of hanover. although over 50 catholics bore closer blood relationships to anne, the “acts of settlement 1701” prohibited catholics from inheriting the british throne. george was anne’s closest living protestant relative. in reaction, the jacobites attempted to depose george and replace him with anne’s catholic half-brother james francis edward stuart. their attempts failed.
during george’s reign the powers of the monarchy diminished and britain began a transition to the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by sir robert walpole (great britain’s first de facto prime minister). george died on a trip to his native hanover (where he was buried).
GEORGE II
(1683 – 1760)
king of great britain + ireland
duke of brunswick-luneburg
archtreasurer + prince-elector of the holy roman empire
(1727 – 1760)
the last british monarch to have been born outside great britain. he was famous for his numerous conflicts with his father and, subsequently, with his son. as king, he exercised little control over policy in his early reign, the government instead being controlled by great britain’s parliament. before that, most kings possessed great powers over their parliaments. he was also the last british monarch to lead an army in battle (at dettingen in 1743). although he primarily spoke german (as well as french) as first languages like his father, he was also fluent in english (unlike his father) as well as latin, dutch, and spanish.
GEORGE III
(1738 – 1820)
king of great britain + ireland
(1760)
great britain + ireland united in 1801
then he became “king of the united kingdom”
duke of brunswick-luneburg
prince-elector of hanover in the holy roman empire
promoted to king of hanover in 1814
third british monarch of the house of hanover
(unlike his two predecessors he was born in britain and spoke english as his first language)
despite his long life, he never visited hanover
his long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of europe, and places farther afield in africa, the americas, and asia. early in his reign, great britain defeated france in the “seven years’ war” and became the dominant european power in north america and india. however, many of its american colonies were lost in the “american war of independence” which led to the establishment of the united states. a series of wars against revolutionary and napoleonic france (over a 20-year period) concluded in the defeat of napoleon in 1815.
in the later part of his life, george III suffered from recurrent mental illness. medical practitioners were baffled at the time. it has since been suggested that he suffered from the blood disease porphyria. after a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established and george III’s eldest son george IV (prince of wales) ruled as prince regent. on george III’s death, the prince regent succeeded his father as george IV. historical analysis of george III’s life is extremely varied.
GEORGE IV
(1762 – 1830)
king of hanover
king of the united kingdom
(1820 – 1830)
from 1811 – 1820, he served as prince regent during his father’s relapse into insanity
he indulged an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the british regency. he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style, and taste. he commissioned architect john nash to build the royal pavilion in brighton and remodel buckingham palace. he commissioned sir jeffry wyatville to rebuild windsor castle. he was instrumental in the foundation of the national gallery in london and king’s college in london.
he had a poor relationship with his father + wife (caroline of brunswick). he forbade his wife to attend his coronation. he introduced the unpopular “pain and penalties bill” in a desperate + unsuccessful attempt to divorce his wife.
for most of george’s regency and reign, lord liverpool controlled the government as prime minister. george’s governments (with little help from the king) presided over victory in the napoleonic wars, negotiated the peace settlement, and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed. he had to accept george canning as foreign minister (and later prime minister) and drop his opposition to catholic emancipation.
his charm and culture earned him the title “the first gentleman of england”. his bad relations with his father + wife and his dissolute way of life earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy. taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending in time of war. he did not provide national leadership in time of crisis nor a role model for his people. his ministers found his behavior selfish, unreliable, and irresponsible. at all times he was much under the influence of favorites.
WILLIAM IV
(1765 – 1837)
king of the united kingdom
king of hanover
(1830 – 1837)
third son of george III and younger brother of george IV. the last king and penultimate monarch of the house of hanover. he served in the royal navy in his youth and was (both during his reign and afterwards) nicknamed the “sailor king”. he served in north america and the caribbean but saw little actual fighting. since his two older brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old.
his reign saw several reforms. the “poor law” was updated, child labor was restricted, slavery was abolished in the british empire, and the “reform act of 1832” refashioned the british electoral system. though william did not engage in politics as much as his brother or father, he was the last monarch to appoint a prime minister contrary to the will of parliament. through his brother (the viceroy of hanover) he granted that kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution.
at his death william had no surviving legitimate children, though he was survived by 8 of the 10 illegitimate children he had by the actress dorothea jordan (with whom he cohabited for 20 years). william was succeeded in the united kingdom by his niece victoria and in hanover by his brother ernest augustus.
VICTORIA
(1819 – 1901)
queen regnant of the UK + ireland
(1837 – 1901)
first empress of india of the british raj from 1876 – 1901
she had the longest reign of any british monarch and is the longest reigning female monarch in history. her reign is known as the “victorian era” and was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military progress within the united kingdom.
victoria was of mostly german descent. she was the daughter of the fourth son of george III (prince edward, duke of kent and strathearn). both the duke of kent and george III died a year after her birth and she inherited the throne at age 18 after her father’s three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. she ascended the throne when the united kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy in which the monarch held relatively few direct political powers and exercised influence by the prime minister’s advice. however she became the iconic symbol of the nation and empire. she had strict standards of personal morality. her reign was marked by a great expansion of the british empire, which reached its zenith and became the foremost global power.
her 9 children and 42 grandchildren married into royal families across the continent, typing them together and earning her the nickname “the grandmother of europe”. she was the last british monarch of the house of hanover. her son king edward VII belonged to the house of saxe-coburg + gotha.
EDWARD VII
(1841 – 1910)
king of the UK + british dominions
emperor of india
(1901 – 1910)
first monarch from the house of saxe-coburg and gotha (which was renamed the “house of windsor” by his son george V)
before his accession to the throne, edward held the title of “prince of wales” and was heir apparent to the throne for longer than anyone else in history. during the long widowhood of his mother queen victoria, he was largely excluded from political power and came to personify the fashionable leisured elite.
the edwardian era (which covered edward’s reign and was named after him) coincided with the start of a new century and heralded significant changes in technology and society (including powered flight and the rise of socialism + the labour movement). edward played a role in the modernization of the “british home fleet”, the reform of the “army medical services”, and the re-organization of the british army after the “second boer war”. he fostered good relations between great britain and other european countries (especially france) for which he was popularly called “peacemaker”. his relationship with his nephew (wilhelm II of germany) was poor. he suspected that wilhelm would precipitate a war. and four years after edward’s death, WWI brought an end to the edwardian way of life.
GEORGE V
(1865 – 1936)
king of the UK + british dominions
emperor of india
(1910 – 1936)
grandson of queen victoria and prince albert of saxe-coburg and gotha
from 1877 – 1891, he served in the royal navy. on the death of victoria in 1901, george’s father became king edward VII and george was made prince of wales. on his father’s death in 1910, he succeeded as king-emperor of the british empire. he was the only emperor of india to be present at his own delhi durbar.
as a result of WWI the other empires in europe fell, while his expanded to its greatest extent. in 1917, he beacme the first monarch of the house of windsor (which he renamed from the “house of saxe-coburg and gotha”) as a result of anti-german public feeling. his reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, irish republicanism, and the first labour ministry (all of which radically changed the political landscape). in 1931, the statute of westminster recognized the dominions of the empire as separate independent kingdoms within the commonwealth of nations. he was plagued by illness throughout much of his later reign and was succeeded by his eldest son edward…
his wife:
mary of teck (1867 – 1953)
queen of the united kingdom and the british dominions and Empress of India as the consort of King-Emperor George V from 1910 – 1936. by birth, she was a princess of Teck, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, with the style Serene Highness. To her family, she was informally known as May, after her birth month.
where do i find a woman like this? bet she wasn’t very good in bed. but who cares?
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“BRITISH MONARCHS”
*WIKI-LIST*
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👈👈👈☜*MONARCHY OF ‘THE UNITED KINGDOM’* ☞ 👉👉👉
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💕💝💖💓🖤💙🖤💙🖤💙🖤❤️💚💛🧡❣️💞💔💘❣️🧡💛💚❤️🖤💜🖤💙🖤💙🖤💗💖💝💘
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*🌈✨ *TABLE OF CONTENTS* ✨🌷*
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🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥*we won the war* 🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥